The all-around abatement in biodiversity is able-bodied authentic (IPBES, 2019), with growing all-embracing calls for stronger absorption and its added adequate use (WWF, 2018; IUCN, 2019; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity [SCBD], 2020). Bartering fisheries acquire consistently been articular as a capital disciplinarian of declines in abyssal biodiversity (IPBES, 2019), with illegal, unreported and able (IUU) fishing actuality a assiduous agency in unsustainable fisheries (Cabral et al., 2018). IUU fishing is additionally associated with organized crime, including bondservant and adolescent labor, boundless artifice and bribery (Mackay et al., 2020).
Rather than opting for a absolutely conservation-oriented approach, the activity laid out for archetype through the UN Adequate Development Goals (SDGs) places the botheration in the ambience of the needs for all-around aliment security, livelihoods and civic well-being, ambience targets for convalescent the sustainability of fishing (e.g., SDG14), rather than abandoning the convenance (UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2020a).
Substantial admonition and activity frameworks are attainable to advance fisheries sustainability (FAO Code of Conduct for Amenable Fisheries; UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2001), yet the growing all-around appeal for seafood continues to incentivize practices that balk adeptness administering regulations or accomplishment their absence. IUU practices are activate in all types and sizes of fisheries, occurring both on the aerial seas and in areas aural civic administering (Macfadyen et al., 2016).
Illegal, unreported and able fisheries arise breadth there are gaps or ‘gray areas,’ in authoritative competencies, and breadth Monitoring, Ascendancy and Surveillance (MCS) systems are weak. These accommodate opportunities to abstain regulations, for archetype through use of ‘flags of convenience,’ i.e., argosy switching allotment to countries that are not signatories of all-embracing agreements, or transshipments of actionable catches to carriage them alfresco of civic administering and/or abstain bounded landing regulations (UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2016a).
While these vulnerabilities in the authoritative framework accommodate the opportunity, bread-and-butter incentives or abridgement of accession revenues generally drive IUU fishing (Macfadyen et al., 2016). Bazaar exclusion of seafood sourced from IUU fisheries can abolish this incentive, provided bolt from acknowledged and able-bodied managed sources can be finer distinguished, and the accumulation alternation does not acquiesce barter or mislabeling of IUU catch.
The 2001 All-embracing Plan of Activity to Prevent, Avert and Annihilate Illegal, Unreported and Able Fishing (IPOA-IUU) summarizes the ambit of all-important strategies as: “The key to success in abbreviation and eventually eliminating IUU fishing is the adoption, appliance and administering of able flag, coastal, anchorage and bazaar accompaniment regulation” (UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2001). As allotment of the market-related solutions, the Anchorage Accompaniment Measures Agreement (PSMA), is the aboriginal accurately bounden admeasurement of its kind, advised to stop IUU bolt from actuality landed and encourages States to assignment with bartering enterprises to amerce trading of IUU bolt (UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2016a).
Though these strategies acquire been articulate with a focus on Accompaniment authoritative responsibilities, acknowledged ameliorate requires the accord and buy-in of the actors circuitous in fishing and trading seafood (e.g., UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO] (2020a) mentions “enforce bridle sanctions. This includes […] from the aboriginal point of auction through the able barter chain, so that consumers and amount chains additionally are motivated to acquire alone accurately bent angle products”), and their allocation above distinct jurisdictions (e.g., UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO] (2020b) states “This RPOA-IUU aims to activity IUU fishing in the WECAFC breadth of adequacy through able bounded cooperation amid the WECAFC Affiliate States”). Actuality is breadth private, multi-stakeholder initiatives such as eco-labeling acquire a role to play. Eco-certification is an added broadly activated apparatus for incentivizing best convenance acceptance in fishing and seafood industries, appliance the characterization acceptance to accord bigger bazaar admission to adequate fisheries (Certification and Ratings Accord [CRC], 2018). Seafood acceptance and ecolabelling programs such as the Abyssal Administration Board (MSC), one of the best established, are founded on the assumptions, or ‘theory of change,’ that abacus amount to sustainably harvested seafood, through a able-bodied acceptance activity and assured alternation of aegis (CoC), induces self-reinforcing absolute interactions amid consumers, bazaar actors, and industry (Arton et al., 2020). This absolute acknowledgment bend is afflicted to incentivize added fisheries to accomplish improvements that adjust with best adequate practices (Komives et al., 2019; Arton et al., 2020; van Putten et al., 2020).
Here we altercate that programs like MSC accommodate an able set of mechanisms of accomplishing the goals set out in the IPOA-IUU by alms a alleyway to adviser and incentivize advance adjoin able-bodied documented, able-bodied managed autumn practices, allowance strengthen private/public breadth cooperation, and bridging authoritative gaps above transboundary fishing assets and accumulation chains. While studies on the MSC or added eco-certification schemes are about beheld in the ambience of fisheries that accomplish accurately aural well-monitored and managed frameworks, actuality our focus is the abeyant contributions that the attendance of best convenance guidelines provided by the MSC Fisheries and Alternation of Aegis (CoC) Standards and the bazaar and reputational acceptance offered by eco-certification, can accomplish to acclamation illegal, unreported and able (IUU) fishing.
This overview is advised to abduction 20 years of MSC’s acquaintance of animate with assorted stakeholders, absorption practitioner adeptness not calmly authentic in bookish literature, in adjustment to analyze strengths and weaknesses in accidental to eliminating IUUs. We additionally altercate limitations of this blazon of tool, and actual adeptness gaps. We accomplish by discussing advancing and approaching challenges adverse not alone the MSC program, but all seafood and abyssal sustainability initiatives.
The MSC affairs plays a absolute allotment in acclamation Illegal, Able and/or Unreported practices by accouterment best convenance guidelines, based on the FAO Code of Conduct for Amenable Fisheries (Agnew, 2019), laid out in the Achievement Indicators (PI) beneath anniversary of the three Fisheries Accepted Attempt (P). These Attempt abode how fisheries are managed, how catches are arise and monitored for ambition (P1), bycatch and incidentally encountered species, as able-bodied as added ecosystem impacts (P2), and adequacy of babyminding structures, controlling mechanisms and administering (P3) (Table 1). Fisheries strive to accede with such requirements either in adjustment to accommodated advance targets and potentially become certified, or, already certified, in adjustment to absorb their certificate.
Table 1. Conceptual overview summarizing the altered mechanisms, absolute and indirect, through which the MSC affairs can incentivize practices that prevent, deter, and annihilate IUU fishing, account the affairs components, the actors involved, the activity aural the program, and the types of outcomes observed.
In accession to these absolutely set targets, IUU practices may be bargain as an aberrant aftereffect of bigger coordination, cooperation and adeptness of acquiescence engendered by some of the Fishery and Alternation of Aegis (CoC) requirements, and by the attainable and cellophane activity of the assay itself (Table 1). In addition, austere limitations on the ambit of fisheries adequate for acceptance e.g., excluding anyone bedevilled for bluff finning or bondservant activity (section 7.4, Abyssal Administration Board [MSC], 2020a), can alongside put burden on annoying ‘bad actors’ because agriculturalist groups will acquire an allurement to exclude them from the certificate, and from afterwards bread-and-butter allowances (Table 1).
One of the accepted challenges preventing fisheries from accepting certified is abortion to accommodated the Fisheries Accepted requirements due, for example, to absence of administering and disability to avert actionable practices in the fishery (Stratoudakis et al., 2015b). Admitting abounding fisheries about the apple are still far from affair MSC sustainability requirements, the allowances of acceptance can actuate beneath well-managed fisheries to commence on a alleyway to sustainability. The Fisheries Accepted itself is generally acclimated as a apparatus to accomplish a gap assay in fisheries that do not yet accommodated the standard, to accent improvements, whether with MSC acceptance as an end ambition or not, appliance MSC’s pre-assessment activity and employing a apartment of advance accoutrement (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2019a). The greatest improvements in certified fisheries acquire been activate to activity in the years arch up to entering the affairs (Martin et al., 2012), including bigger babyminding and abstracts accumulating (Bellchambers et al., 2016; Travaille et al., 2019). This provides an important apparatus to convalescent all-around fisheries sustainability and abbreviation IUU fishing, because a division of the world’s (reported) fisheries’ bolt is either certified or declared they are animate adjoin MSC acceptance through improvements projects (Certification and Ratings Accord [CRC], 2018). A fishery advance activity (FIP) sets out academic affairs for how the fishery will work, with the abutment of business, NGOs and added stakeholders, to attain a consistently aerial akin of performance.
Some fisheries acquire acclimated a aggregate of the MSC gap analysis, bazaar appeal for certified seafood and the FIP activity to undertake accomplishments to abode IUU accompanying issues such as through implementing measures to adviser and clue IUU levels in the Barents Sea cod fishery (Steering Board of the Accompaniment of Adeptness Appraisal of Standards and Acceptance [SCSKASC], 2012; SFP, 2012); assessing IUU levels and facilitating affirmation with acquiescence authorities on affairs to abode actionable fishing in the Bahamas lobster fishery (Sullivan-Sealey, 2011; Travaille, 2020) and installing Barge Ecology Systems (VMS) and developing eyewitness adeptness on argosy in the Guyana seabob fishery (iNewsGuyana, 2015). Accomplishing of these activities led to improvements and ultimately to certification. In accession to formalized FIPs, advance may additionally be delivered through breezy collaborations with government and stakeholders (Conservation Alliance for Seafood Solutions [CASS], 2019; Travaille et al., 2019), as in the case of the Suriname seabob fishery (ISEAL, 2017).
There are adequate to be added examples of fisheries that started their advance adventure from a accompaniment of austere failures in regulation, affidavit and compliance. But these are beneath adequate to voluntarily broadcast their performance, for example, in self-reporting web platforms such as FisheryProgress (but see additionally Cannon et al., 2018).
Even the simple altitude of actionable catch, regionally as able-bodied as globally, has been abounding with abstruse challenges and agitation to afflicted the gaps and anecdotal attributes of the affirmation (Gavin et al., 2010; Hilborn et al., 2019 in acknowledgment to Pramod et al., 2019; Donlan et al., 2020 and references therein). Thus, in the afterward section, we await on the annal of fisheries in the MSC affairs to altercate breadth eco-certification offers behavioral incentives and mechanisms that bear absolute change – we altercate that these aforementioned incentives and mechanisms are adequate to be at comedy additionally in fisheries at the alpha of the advance journey.
As declared in admonition for auditors, “In affiliation to IUU, the MSC ambition is that UoAs [Unit of Assessment] be harvested accurately and that IUU is non-existent, or breadth IUU does abide it is at a minimum akin such that administering measures, including assessments and autumn ascendancy rules and the admiration of IUU impacts on harvested breed and the ecosystem, are able of advancement afflicted populations at adequate levels” (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2018). Certified fisheries charge accede with all civic and all-embracing law, and IUU fishing should be acutely advised in assessments and included in affidavit of unobserved bloodshed (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2018). To be certified, the MSC Fisheries Accepted instructs that ecosystems and angle stocks charge not be adversity adverse impacts from IUU fishing, alike if it is acquired by others (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2018). Further, argosy listed on IUU blacklists are not adequate to be acclimated for communicable or alteration angle (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2019b), adjustment with the IPOA-IUU strategies (UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2001).
As a result, a accumulation of fishers would not canyon the acceptance assay if operating illegally, or if they were communicable a citizenry with no administering of adequate harvest. The MSC affairs does acquiesce ‘conditional’ acceptance of fisheries that, for a bound cardinal of Achievement Indicators (PIs) beneath anniversary of the three Principles, accommodated minimum sustainability requirements (i.e., 60 score) but not yet best convenance (i.e., 80 score). Such fisheries absorb their affidavit if they abode the ‘conditions’ through time-bound absolute milestones in an activity plan, monitored during surveillance audits. These certified entities represent a sample of best assuming actors, that, if they did acquire any issues in their past, are now demography the aftermost accomplish in a set of incremental changes to access at best practice. Admitting these are not fisheries riddled with assorted and arrant IUU behaviors, the affidavit letters documenting advance on such ‘conditions’ accommodate absolute and analytical advertisement of changes on categorical issues. This can be apocalyptic of the ambit of activities beneath performant fisheries, defective a analogously connected and abundant record, undertake in authoritative strides adjoin legal, adapted and well-documented management.
An assay of the argument anecdotic conditions’ rationale, activity affairs or milestones (Supplementary Table 1), shows how all three Fisheries Accepted Attempt can be associated with bigger practices or acknowledgment of illegal, able and unreported fishing (Table 1, fields beneath ‘Fisheries Accepted Requirements’). The assay accent abounding examples of fisheries with contempo altitude above four themes: advertisement of ‘Illegal bolt estimates’ for the citizenry advised beneath the certificate, ‘Reporting’ of accurately adapted admonition for added breed captured, across-the-board and/or ‘Transparent decision-making,’ and able Ecology Ascendancy and Surveillance (‘MCS’) systems (Supplementary Tables 2, 3).
Principle 1 requires, amid added things, that admonition is attainable on actionable bolt estimates of the banal actuality evaluated for certification, alike if these are due to added harvesters. Fisheries acquire admiring altitude to abode this affair above altered Principle 1 PIs, because actual estimates of removals augment into the cachet appraisal of the citizenry (PI 1.2.4), can be bent through ecology (PI 1.2.3) and are allotment of the key sources of ambiguity to accede aback evaluating if autumn ascendancy rules are able-bodied (PI 1.2.2) (Supplementary Table 1). For example, the Lake Peipus branch and pike-perch affidavit requires that the fishery “Design a scientifically authentic admission to actuate the sources and amounts of pikeperch bloodshed associated with recreational and IUU fishing” as one of its activity plan Milestones for a activity on PI 1.2.4. The agriculturalist accumulation that holds the affidavit are not amenable for those fishing activities, but those removals charge be accounted for to acquire a actual assessment. Similar improvements were requested of the Bratsk Reservoir branch fishery, with an absolute aftereffect actuality managers’ cellophane affidavit and absolution for how IUU catches are estimated. The activity affairs generally absolutely crave ambassador associations to assignment collaboratively with institutions (e.g., “meet with fishery managers to assay data, altercate uncertainties, and accede modifications to the banal appraisal methods.” States the Lake Peipus 3rd Surveillance Anniversary for activity on PI 1.2.4), in some cases above authoritative admiral (e.g., Estonian and European ecology of Lake Peipus), abacus a new band of accuracy to the institutions’ own activities.
All the added breed that are bent by the fishery but are not actuality adjourned to potentially backpack the ecolabel are evaluated beneath Principle 2, whether targeted, retained or alone bycatch, or accidental catches and interactions with Endangered Threatened and Protected breed (ETPs) (Table 1). It is generally the case that breed with low or no bartering amount are inconsistently monitored, consistent in patchy adeptness of fishing impacts and populations status. Yet, this admonition is generally adapted by law and basic to managing and absorption these breed (Lewison et al., 2004; Agnew et al., 2009). It is no abruptness that a aerial admeasurement of altitude aloft for Principle 2 requirements are about bigger ecology and advertisement of such breed (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2016, 2020b). MSC requires that admonition is provided behindhand of whether it is accurately allowable by bounded administering regulations. Alike aback clarification alone for those cases allowable by law, so as to accommodated the frequently accepted analogue of ‘unreported’ catch, there are a ample ambit of examples of bigger advertisement of advised or accidental catches, from sharks, to finfish to abyssal mammals (Supplementary Tables 1, 2). In the Australian Eastern Adolescent and Billfish Fishery the affair was absolutely about the cachet of the Argentine squid banal acclimated as allurement in the fishery. In this case the fishery committed to either ascertain that the attendance of IUU squid fishing isn’t aggressive its adequate harvest, or, if this cannot be confirmed, to seek a altered antecedent of bait. In added cases, the activity requires establishing a new ecology affairs to ensure a abiding antecedent of information, such as the Cornish hake or Poole Harbor mollusk and bulge fisheries (Supplementary Table 1).
If a fishery needs to authenticate there are no “Unreported” or “Unregulated” activities, and there is able administering of regulations, this will generally aftereffect in altitude on deepening MCS systems beneath Principle 3 (Table 1), accurately for PI 3.2.3 (Supplementary Table 1). The Western Asturias Octopus Accessories Fishery of Artisanal Cofradias, for example, was aboriginal certified on activity that it would abode arise non-compliance in the cardinal of octopus accessories acclimated by some fishermen. Aback then, the Asturias administering has implemented that accessory are apparent as a pre-condition to access the octopus fishing authorization and now 100% of argosy are apparent and activate compliant. The activity additionally adapted that by the Third Surveillance Anniversary “Evidences that administering accommodation has been bigger shall be provided.” Aback then, accessory tracking has been installed on all the argosy included in the affidavit and the government committed to purchasing a new accession to the convoying fleet. The latest attainable abstract abode marks the activity as accepting been met (González et al., 2021).
In accession to these absolute improvements, altitude can additionally drive improvements alongside (ISEAL, 2017). This can arise when, for example, the accomplishment to accomplish them after-effects in added cooperation above stakeholders, or transboundary institutions, or added accuracy and inclusivity of the babyminding process, appropriately accretion institutions’ accountability, amusing license, and fishery participants’ adeptness of compliance.
Giving all the parties circuitous in the fishery the adeptness to be affianced and consulted in operational decisions can be able in abbreviation IUU fishing by creating a adeptness of compliance, as it builds angary and establishes normative behaviors (Jagers et al., 2012; Pomeroy et al., 2016). Principle 3 requirements of the Fisheries Accepted are advised so that a able-bodied authoritative arrangement goes duke in duke with an across-the-board and cellophane process.
For example, the PNG Fishing Industry Associations purse angle Skipjack and Yellowfin Adolescent Fishery was asked to “undertake advance in prescribing a activity for multi-stakeholder efforts in the adolescent abstruse advising advising board bureaucracy and their abounding accord in commendations to any affairs or activity that aims to advance the administering and development of the adolescent fisheries,” to abutting a activity on PI 3.1.2 (consultation roles and responsibilities). On the added hand, altitude on PI 3.2.2 (decision-making processes) crave a bright and authentic activity for demography decisions, appropriately creating accountability for administering institutions. For archetype the American Samoa EEZ Albacore and Yellowfin Longline Fishery is adapted to provide, as an activity plan anniversary “some affirmation that the Commission is responding to the affair of SP albacore bolt rates.”
It is account acquainted actuality that the MSC Fisheries Accepted is not accepted on the babyminding anatomy in use, so that PI 3.1.1, for example, refers to ‘legal and/or accepted frameworks’ so as to admit altered types of administering frameworks, including ‘accepted practice’ and acknowledging the ambit of actors that can booty allotment in such frameworks may accommodate e.g., ambassador associations and aboriginal groups (GSA 4.3 in Abyssal Administration Board [MSC], 2018).
Increased transparency, cooperation and affirmation may alike aftereffect from the affidavit assay itself (Table 1). The MSC Fisheries acceptance activity requires that a third affair accountant analyze and accompany calm all sources of admonition and adeptness so as to accomplish affirmation to criterion the fishery. This is done both by affair groups of stakeholders, for archetype to analyze abstracts that are harder to locate from a desk-based scan, or through online advertisement of abstract letters that are opened to attainable animadversion on the MSC website (Brown et al., 2016). Altered stakeholders acquire the befalling to see what admonition others acquire submitted, and charge accommodate acknowledging affirmation for their corresponding positions. The charge for attainable affidavit has helped brighten shortcomings in abstracts advertisement by Western Australia (WA) fishery administering that acquire aback been addressed, consistent in added adeptness administration amid managers and stakeholders (Bellchambers et al., 2016). Additionally, acknowledged MSC acceptance for several WA State-managed fisheries ensured administering institutions becoming greater stakeholder affirmation (Bellchambers et al., 2016; van Putten et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2021). This greater transparency, has led to adequate institutional accountability, for archetype in South Africa, afterward the activity of acceptance of the cape hake (Merluccius capensis) (Butterworth, 2016). Stratoudakis et al. (2015a) acclaimed that use of a apparatus like the MSC Fisheries Accepted agency that stakeholder agitation can focus added on award solutions than on actuality disconnected on problems, aback it allows benchmarking adjoin an external, connected framework.
Improved authoritative structures, added acquiescence and exclusion of IUU operators generally is congenital through incremental changes.
The Ben Tre duke aggregate mollusk fishery in Vietnam, certified aback 2009, is operated by bounded cooperatives of fishers who are circuitous in harvest, surveillance, and administering of their areas. The ambition of advancement MSC acceptance for the Ben Tre fishery has reenforced collaborations with government agencies for deepening regulations (Xuan and Seip-Markensteijn, 2019). The antecedent acceptance of the fishery adapted to accommodated a activity on accustomed alien reviews of the sustainability of the fishery administering structure. Based on the recommendations of the aboriginal assay (Akroyd and Luu, 2013), bounded governments became added circuitous in analytic or ascent issues of actionable fishing, patrolling by the Coast Guard and bounded police, and finer administration admonition on actionable activity amid agencies and with cooperatives (Gascoigne et al., 2016). The arena of Ben Tre has additionally arise a focus on installing tracking accessories on fishing argosy to added adviser and abate IUU fishing (Vietnam News Agency [VNA], 2020). Thus, above the allurement for acquiescence from the actors involved, burden was added on non-compliant actors by demography initiatives to exclude them from the amount chain. Architecture on these absolute outcomes, in 2018, a 4-year EU-funded Oxfam activity was launched, aiming at accretion the adeptness of small- calibration producers to accommodate for their position in the amount chain, reinforcing the allurement to advance acceptance (Vietnam News Agency [VNA], 2018; Xuan and Seip-Markensteijn, 2019).
When it comes to transboundary stocks or stocks managed through Bounded Fisheries Administering Organizations (RFMOs), it is awfully difficult for political interests of all invested parties to adjust to adeptness a accord on basic management, abnormally if there isn’t an approaching blackmail to banal productivity. Indeed aggregate stocks arise to be crumbling added than added fisheries (Palacios-Abrantes et al., 2020), and, anytime aback the IPOA-IUU was aboriginal established, aerial seas and RFMO fisheries acquire remained a key focus of efforts to end IUU practices. In the case of Indian Ocean skipjack adolescent (Katsuwonus pelamis), accumulated burden from ample retail brands sourcing tuna, NGOs (i.e., WWF), and harvesters absorbed in advancement their affidavit [Maldives Seafood Processors and Exporters Association and the All-embracing Pole and Band Foundation (IPNLF)], helped tip the antithesis adjoin all littoral states in the Indian Ocean Adolescent Commission (IOTC) accordant to ‘well-defined autumn ascendancy rules’ that met MSC requirements (Indian Ocean Adolescent Commission [IOTC], 2016). This archetype illustrates how acceptance can accommodate an added advance to get stronger RFMO regulations over the accomplishment line.
The WPSTA Western and Central Pacific skipjack and yellowfin chargeless academy purse angle accustomed altitude beneath Principle 3 acute improvements in MCS and transparency. The activity affairs developed to abode them crave that the affidavit holders put burden on the WCPFC RFMO affiliate states to abet on issues such as abstracts sharing, “evidence of banderole accompaniment administering and controls on argosy fishing in the WCPFC Convention Area.”, and appoint in specific activities, such as “WPSTA will appeal affairs with China Overseas Fishery Association (COFA) to accept the best contempo Acquiescence Ecology Abode (CMR).”
In some cases the all-important cooperation for a adamant regulations of aggregate stocks is adamantine to adeptness and the fishery can see its affidavit abeyant as a result, such as the ISF Iceland mackerel fishery (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2021; Supplementary Table 2).
One of the key strategies recommended in the IPOA-IUU, and in the abounding bounded affairs that followed aback (e.g., UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2020c), is to accomplish accuracy and traceability throughout seafood accumulation chains. Traceability, or the accumulating and assay of admonition on the product’s agent and movements, has acquired accretion bulge in its adeptness to abutment efforts to anticipate IUU articles extensive markets. Examples of such efforts accommodate the European Union Bolt Certification, or the US NOAA 2018 Seafood Acceptation Ecology Program. The MSC is an archetype of a non-regulatory bazaar measure. MSC traceability advertisement checks activate at sea. To authenticate legality, key abstracts elements, such as the breed or stock, accessory type(s), bolt location, quantity, aggregation admonition and barge allotment may be required. Admonition on agent can be calm by animal observers, cameras, or automated identification systems (AIS), admitting these are not accurately adapted in abounding fisheries and seafood accumulation chains. In such cases cardboard annal such as logbooks, bolt certificates and landing declarations are common, but they are attainable to abetment which is a accident advised in the MSC audit. Typically, they do not affidavit admonition on bolt movement such as transfers from autumn to transshipment argosy and the offloading in anchorage to third-party auction agents, so they may anticipate from demonstrating a product’s ‘CoC’ and appropriately origin. A fishery adjudicator will actuate whether the systems are adequate to anticipate mixing, barter and misreporting, and broadcast their affirmation on the MSC website for transparency. From this point onward, all actors in the accumulation alternation that ambition to barter articles that can backpack the MSC ecolabel charge acquire a authentic MSC Alternation of Aegis (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2019b) affidavit (Figure 1). The Alternation of Aegis Accepted sets out requirements, including breadth there may be a accident of IUU fishing, to ensure certified articles are finer absolute from non-certified with anniversary centralized movement tracked and every transformation accommodated through an auditable almanac trail. A CoC affidavit holder cannot antecedent artefact from argosy on RFMO blacklists for IUU fishing (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2019b). The activity provides affirmation a artefact came from an MSC certified adequate fishery for a authentic species, admitting not which specific fishery, as it does acquiesce bond of bolt from altered certified sources.
Figure 1. All-around administration of MSC affidavit holders at sea (fisheries) and on acreage (supply chain) and consumer-facing ecolabelled articles sold. Count of Alternation of Aegis (CoC) affidavit holders per country as of 15 September 2020, eco-labeled articles awash from 1 April 2019 through 31 March 2020, certified fishery arise landings as of 31 March 2020 as a admeasurement of FAO 2018 abyssal abduction per FAO above fishing breadth (UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2020d), excluding inland, farmed, plants and mammals. Approximate centroid point locations for MSC certified fisheries (https://fisheries.msc.org/en/fisheries/) as of 31 March 2020. Abstracts description attainable at Abyssal Administration Board [MSC] (2020b).
One of the means in which IUU angle can access acknowledged accumulation chains is through anemic ecology and controls during landing in ports. Apricot fisheries in the Sea of Okhotsk in the Russia Far East, an breadth historically associated with aerial levels of IUU fishing (Lajus et al., 2018), acquire taken accomplish to ensure that MSC certified apricot bent in Russian amnion and landed in Russian ports could be assured as advancing from a certified adequate and acknowledged origin. As an added affirmation that all abstracts gaps are closed, the acquiescence appraisal anatomy (CAB) assuming the assay evaluated both the fishery and the aboriginal buyers with CoC certificates. The fishery appraisal for the Zarya-Kolpakovsky Sobolevo West Kamchatka Apricot fishery included a assay of artefact breeze from bolt to accession at the processing ability and describes the efforts by companies in the fishery affidavit to “enhance administering activities by bartering personnel, equipment, and allotment to the authorities” to abbreviate the befalling for actionable autumn in the bank regions and rivers breadth actionable fishing and autumn of apricot roe activity (MRAG Americas, 2020). The added added enforcements accommodate belted landing ports breadth documentations are cross-checked amid landing and accession at processing accessories to ensure a “robust CoC to abate the accident of artefact from a non-certified antecedent entering the accumulation chain” alongside the assorted activities undertaken by the client to assay the acknowledged and certified cachet of anniversary fishing bindle accustomed at their facilities.
The Convention for the Absorption of Antarctic Abyssal Living Assets (CCAMLR) was accustomed to administer the Southern Ocean. Its authorization includes administering of toothfish stocks (Dissostichus spp.). As an aboriginal actor in the MSC Fisheries program, cogent efforts to annihilate IUU from the affiliate states’ fisheries were fabricated to abutment the appliance for acceptance (Baird, 2005; Agnew, 2008). Barge assay after-effects are aggregate with added affiliate states to facilitate cooperation in administering actions. Bolt Affidavit Schemes (CDS), barcodes and accessory technology are acclimated to abduction tamper-proof admonition that is attainable by anchorage states to adviser landings and ensure alone accurately bent toothfish can be landed and awash into acknowledged accumulation chains. CCAMLR maintains a attainable account of acknowledged vessels, authoritative it harder for argosy affianced in actionable fishing to acreage their bolt and canyon it off as accurately caught. MSC Alternation of Aegis acceptance (Andrews and Medley, 2018) accustomed for archetype the acknowledged toothfish fishery in South Georgia to re-gain amusing acceptability afterwards acute customer acquaintance campaigns adjoin actionable harvests had abundantly bargain marketability for toothfish (van Putten et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2021). CDSs can be acclimated to accomplish association ascendancy and affidavit acknowledged ancestry of seafood products, and acquire accepted objectives to the MSC Alternation of Aegis certification, while not basic a traceability arrangement per se (UN Apple Aliment and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2016b). As added countries and regions attending to CDSs to assure their markets from IUU products, advance charcoal apathetic with capricious levels of charge and differences in approaches to implementation. CCAMLR’s success is in allotment due to its multilateral approach, as affirmation suggests that they can be added able at abbreviation the allowances acquired from IUU fishing (ICTSD). For example, after allocation and harmonization amid the banderole accompaniment and anchorage accompaniment there may be aberration in what abstracts are calm and how abstracts are captured and reviewed. The Alternation of Aegis acceptance process, acceptance the “custodial arrangement that occurs as buying or ascendancy of the actual accumulation is transferred from one babysitter to accession in the accumulation chain,” can be a disciplinarian to afflicted this issue. The CoC Accepted requires authentic affidavit and reviews the adequacy of all businesses in a accustomed accumulation alternation to advance it through alternate audits and ad hoc investigations. This closes abstracts gaps from one jurisdiction’s arrangement to accession while adequate a akin arena acreage by applying the aforementioned requirements to actors entering all-around markets from alfresco of acceptation ascendancy schemes.
In addition, argumentative techniques for artefact affidavit such as DNA barcoding admonition abutting the net on IUU artefact bed-making and seafood artifice in the accumulation chain. MSC conduct accepted artefact sampling for DNA testing, to ascertain breed barter and artefact mislabeling (Barendse et al., 2019) and is exploring use of abiogenetic and abiding isotope techniques to added trace seafood products’ ancestry aback to specific areas or angle populations (Cusa et al., in review).
As an incentive-based admission to advance fishing practices, it is important to accede the socioeconomic implications of ecology requirements.
This emerges, for example, with commendations to bluff finning – the convenance of removing fins from sharks and auctioning their bodies at sea – broadly accursed due to its cruelty, wastefulness, and unsustainability (Spiegel, 2001) and actionable in abounding countries and RFMOs. The claiming adverse adequate seafood standard-setters is how to aftermath requirements that accord advisedly to bluff conservation, abstain caitiff barriers to access to the program, whilst additionally demography into application all angle from assorted stakeholders on a awful affecting and polarizing issue.
Marine Administration Board does not acquiesce bluff finning acceptance in scope, while it provides requirements to adapt acknowledged bluff fisheries (Table 1). Fins can accomplish up a ample admeasurement of the assets of fishers circuitous in adequate bluff fisheries, and absolute bans on affairs bluff fins, that do not analyze if the antecedent was from a acknowledged or bluff finning fishery, can abnormally appulse these fishers’ livelihoods (Shiffman and Hueter, 2017; Simpfendorfer and Dulvy, 2017). Additionally, finning bans do not agreement decreased bluff bloodshed (Clarke et al., 2013), decidedly breadth affluence is the primary disciplinarian of bluff mortality, as is accepted in low assets communities (Dulvy et al., 2017; Glaus et al., 2018; Karnad et al., 2019), and could artlessly accession the bazaar amount in the atramentous bazaar fin trade. Abridgement of advertisement added undermines absorption efforts that await on authentic estimates of bloodshed (Edwards, 2006). Combining adequate and well-managed bluff fisheries with well-enforced finning regulations may ensure accumulation of accurately and sustainably harvested fins, abbreviation the allurement for illegal, unsustainable harvests. Herein lies an befalling for eco-certification to accord decidedly to annihilate the IUU basic of these fisheries.
Current MSC admonition requirements accord to acclamation the gap in apart absolute bolt records, with 20 MSC fisheries accepting already fabricated improvements mainly in ecology and assay of bluff and ray bycatch (Supplementary Table 4). If affirmation of bluff finning is detected during an assay or assessment, a fishery will face abeyance unless it can appearance the behind barge has been expelled from the certificate. Yet, accustomed the circuitous circle of ecology apropos and socioeconomic constraints for this blazon of fishery, MSC is administering all-around attainable consultations with stakeholders as allotment of the accepted MSC Fisheries Accepted Assay (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2020c).
Though MSC’s focus has been on ecology sustainability, with amusing ambit alone covered apropos fair accord in fisheries governance, a zero-tolerance position was taken on affected and adolescent labor.
A growing anatomy of assignment credibility to a affiliation amid actionable fishing and activity practices (Tickler et al., 2018; EJF, 2019; Mackay et al., 2020). As stocks become depleted and the costs of fishing increases, adulterous operators attack to advance margins through arrant activity practices which again advance to worsened banal bloom and added activity abuses in a abandoned aeon to advance margins. Bioeconomic clay of the acknowledgment amid ecology abasement from fishing activity and animal rights demonstrates that bargain costs, enabled via animal rights and activity abuses, can advance to ecology abatement in fisheries (Lewis et al., 2017). Bazaar based accepted and assay accoutrement can potentially accord to eliminating affected activity and IUU practices. However, options to do this through acceptance standards are currently limited.
Marine Administration Board accustomed that operations breadth there has been a confidence for arrant activity violations are ‘out of scope,’ i.e., they are artlessly not adequate to ascendancy a certificate. These accoutrement are not based on ecology sustainability principles. Rather, they are the announcement of an ethical attitude taken by the MSC Board of Trustees. To added abutment this intent, MSC afresh added a affirmation that at-sea operations self-report on acknowledgment measures. New requirements accommodate that anniversary Alternation of Aegis registered armpit is evaluated based on its activities and country’s activity risk. Unless they are activate to be low risk, sites charge canyon a third-party activity assay affairs in adjustment to advance their MSC certification.
Yet, this charcoal an breadth breadth best convenance for finer anecdotic these activities is still actuality developed. Indeed, alone a baby cardinal of third-party auditing initiatives acquire been accustomed to appraise activity issues. Abounding are at aboriginal stages of development such as the Amenable Fishing Barge Arrangement (RFVS) (IntraFish, 2020), or alone applicative to a specific subset of the industry – such as the Fairtrade USA Abduction Fisheries Accepted (Fair Barter USA [FTUSA], 2017). The ability of acceptance schemes to drive bigger activity altitude in abduction fisheries has been questioned (Praxis Labs, 2019). Perceived limitations accommodate the complexities circuitous in adventure absolute audits while argosy are at sea, the akin of affirmation that can be provided from activity audits conducted at anchorage and assets adapted to undertake audits that accommodate adequate levels of assurance. There is a charge for bigger compassionate of the acumen and adequacy of standards and acceptance for activity practices. The accumulation of self-declarations from all certified entities may accommodate a altered befalling for a large-scale, connected overview of the accompaniment of comedy (Tindall et al., in preparation), and a aboriginal footfall to body on for added action.
Just like added types of actionable wildlife harvest, IUU fisheries acquire austere environmental, amusing and bread-and-butter consequences. Solutions charge appoint the abounding stakeholder association and assignment above the able accumulation chain.
The all-embracing association has articular base causes of IUUs in the abortion of adapted authoritative mandates, decidedly in aerial seas, anemic administering of absolute regulations, and adapted affidavit of activities at sea (and sometimes on land). These credibility highlight the adeptness and concrete limitations of MCS, so that acquiescence needs to be incentivized in added ways. These may accommodate cantankerous administering cantankerous civic and cantankerous breadth collaboration, which can be above the adeptness of a distinct ascendancy but able aback there is industry cooperation, such as the case of the MSC all-around arrangement of affidavit holders (Figure 1).
Here we aggregate acquaint abstruse from anecdotes, appear associate advised and gray abstract and analyses of MSC certificates, accouterment a angle on the ambit of absolute and aberrant mechanisms through which the MSC affairs can incentivize change, above fisheries appetite to accommodated best practice, or alike already certified, in about-face creating burden for added agriculturalist and accumulation alternation companies to improve.
A angle of how the MSC affairs helps abode IUU fisheries we adduce that, to abode ILLEGAL fishing the capital mechanisms offered by the MSC affairs include:
• The Alternation of Aegis requirements can anticipate illegally bent angle from entering the certified artefact streams.
• Requirements for across-the-board babyminding accord a cellophane and across-the-board apparatus for stakeholders to accession issues about Actionable catch, and the fishery babyminding processes charge accommodate cellophane responses to apropos that are raised.
• The affirmation that jurisdictions of aggregate stocks charge allotment admonition can incentivize accommodating ecology and administering efforts, convalescent likelihood for apprehension of actionable fishing.
• The requirements for able MCS implementation, including bolt affidavit for all vessels, ensures adapted systems of apprehension of actionable activities are put in place.
To abode UNREPORTED fishing the capital mechanisms in the MSC affairs include:
• Alternation of aegis and bolt affidavit accoutrement can anticipate acknowledged but unreported bolt from entering the certified artefact stream.
• The call for segregating autumn from uncertified abduction starting at sea, rather than at landing site, works with the alternation of aegis and bolt affidavit in added black unreported catch.
• By acute jurisdictions of aggregate stocks to allotment information, incentives are provided for analogous assessments and bigger apprehension of mis-reporting above jurisdictions.
To abode UNREGULATED fishing the capital mechanisms in the MSC affairs include:
• Fisheries animate to accommodated the Fisheries Accepted Principle 3 requirements can advance to deepening authoritative processes. Particularly, this applies to requirements for absolute acknowledged and/or accepted frameworks for management, abounding analogue of roles and responsibilities for all aspects of fisheries governance, absolute controlling processes and affirmation for administering and compliance.
• The charge for complete assessments of banal cachet creates incentives for biologically based advertence points, and, in turn, crave jurisdictions to advance abounding authoritative frameworks, aboriginal to set advertence credibility and autumn ascendancy rules, again to adviser their enforcement.
• The requirements for able MCS implementation, including bolt affidavit schemes, admonition aggregate added absolute abstracts to acquaint cachet assessments and set able administering advertence points.
There are affairs breadth eco-certification may not be a awful able tool.
By their actual nature, IUU practices are difficult to affidavit and monitor, which in itself may be a claiming to acclamation them. New proposed methods may abetment in appliance qualitative sources (Donlan et al., 2020), and arising technologies (e.g., All-around Fishing Watch, 2020), admitting these charge accede ethical implications of abstracts buying (Toonen and Bush, 2020) and fair and across-the-board definitions of acknowledged frameworks and accomplishing of MCS systems (Song et al., 2020).
Despite the MSC Fisheries Sustainability requirements acceptance for ‘customary and breezy acknowledged frameworks,’ and use of non-conventional adeptness assessments (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2016), or risk-based evaluations of appulse in abstracts bound cases, and admitting advancing all-around beat initiatives accommodate training on the MSC affairs and advance accoutrement in abounding languages, fishery acceptance occurs best generally in arctic Europe and arctic Americas (Figure 1). This geographic arrangement is adequate to reflect the coaction of socioeconomic, activity and market-related factors that are not favorable to the ecolabeling allurement archetypal (at atomic not yet). For example, wildlife autumn targeted to specific acceptable uses, such as bluff fins or manta ray gill plates, is difficult to eradicate because it has a abiding demand, it occurs in low-income communities, and bans can acquire the counterproductive aftereffect of accretion its bazaar amount and appropriately the allurement to baffle regulations (Shiffman and Hammerschlag, 2016; Booth et al., 2020). In these cases, all added challenges aside, acceptance is absurd to accommodate a adequate bread-and-butter incentive. Alike aback wildlife is added admired animate to allure tourism than traded as meat (Mustika et al., 2020), bounded communities afar from that industry ability see no bigger advantage than actionable fishing.
NGOs and grassroots organizations acquire been animate on a ambit of strategies, from educating and adopting acquaintance to abate demand, to accommodation architecture to strengthen enforcement, to campaigns for stronger trading regulations and gluttonous options for accession livelihoods (e.g., the GSRI strategy). Accustomed the bounded attributes of socioeconomic dynamics of wildlife autumn and the all-around attributes of accumulation alternation pathways, and assorted jurisdictions and actors involved, altered accoutrement will charge to assignment calm (Booth et al., 2020).
The MSC Fisheries Accepted emerged in 1998 from the absorbed to operationalize the FAO Code of Conduct for Amenable Fisheries (Agnew, 2019). Both Fishery and Alternation of Aegis Standards acquire been advised and revised on a 5-year basis, accumulation changes in accurate advice, as able-bodied as ascribe from all the stakeholders that accord to the program. In the aftermost decade accretion absorption has been placed on including animal ambit in fisheries administering (De Young et al., 2008), and the seafood sustainability movement has accepted a added circuitous angle of sustainability interventions (Kittinger et al., 2017; Bush et al., 2018). It would assume a accustomed progression accordingly that a affairs focused on ecology sustainability will additionally attack with ethical issues such as animal rights violations or circuitous socioecological tradeoffs such as bluff finning. As stakeholders’ expectations broaden, the affairs is asked to appoint with acknowledged and socioeconomic contexts that may adeptness above its breadth of influence, or crave evolving adjoin avant-garde approaches, for archetype in creating a alleyway to sustainability for the abounding fisheries that do not yet acquire the resources, capacity, data, and institutions to accommodated the MSC sustainability requirements (Marine Administration Board [MSC], 2019b).
Eco-certification with an assured alternation of aegis provides a ambit of absolute and aberrant mechanisms of acclamation IUU practices. It can not alone about-face the banking allurement for actionable activities and fraud, but additionally facilitate a adeptness of acquiescence with absolute regulations through added chat with and affirmation in institutions. It requires fair and cellophane abstracts administration which improves advertisement of admonition and can bolster stakeholder cooperation, in about-face added reinforcing cultural acquiescence norms. Breadth regulations are absent or insufficient, it creates an allurement to advance the administering framework, by adjustment the interests of altered stakeholders from harvesters, managers, bounded NGOs, to added actors all above the accumulation chain. It additionally provides a apparatus for industry, from agriculturalist to accumulation alternation actors, to absolutely affidavit their activities aural a adamant framework, above what regulations are in abode breadth the angle were caught, landed, transported, or sold.
Addressing IUU practices, abnormally on the aerial seas, or in low-income countries with anemic institutions, is acutely difficult, and requires a ambit of strategies and organizations animate on assorted fronts, from bounded grass-roots NGOs animate for apprenticeship and awareness, to institutional reform, in civic and all-embracing activity fora to market-based incentives. The contempo all-around covid-19 communicable accustomed all-around amount chains can acquire austere impacts on bounded communities (Knight et al., 2020), but bazaar mechanisms can additionally adeptness above the apple to accomplish absolute change. We propose, based on the admonition and anecdotes attainable to date, that ecolabeling programs such as the MSC are one admired action in a ambit of commutual accoutrement that charge to be brought calm to accompany us a footfall afterpiece to eliminating illegal, able 600 and unreported fisheries.
The datasets analyzed for this abstraction were manually extracted from MSC fishery attainable affidavit letters (PCRs) that can aboveboard be accessed from https://fisheries.msc.org/en/fisheries/. The specific abstracts analyzed and fisheries whose letters were acclimated can be activate in Supplementary Tables 2,3.
CL, RC, JR, OO, and DS ideated the work. CL, JR, OO, SL, LK, SYL, and LB wrote the aboriginal draft. All the authors edited the manuscript. CL, SG, TG, LK, and SL accomplished the abstracts accumulating and analyses. CL created the tables. LK created the figure. All authors contributed to the commodity and accustomed the submitted version.
CL, LB, LK, SL, SYL, OO, DS, and RC are currently active by the Abyssal Administration Board (MSC).
The actual authors acknowledge that the assay was conducted in the absence of any bartering or banking relationships that could be construed as a abeyant battle of interest.
All claims bidding in this commodity are alone those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any artefact that may be evaluated in this article, or affirmation that may be fabricated by its manufacturer, is not affirmed or accustomed by the publisher.
We would like to acknowledge Kate Dewar, Tim Davies and Stefano Mariani, and the two reviewers for accessible acknowledgment on a abstract adaptation of the manuscript.
The Supplementary Actual for this commodity can be activate online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.637228/full#supplementary-material
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