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Answer: Yes I acquire credible several walls here…there are abounding walls on Easter Island. I haven’t credible them all but I acquire credible two that are decidedly agnate to Inca walls. I anticipate they were allegedly congenital the aforementioned way the Inca walls were built. The absolute catechism is do they beforehand that the Incas somehow fabricated a boating to Easter Island to body them? I anticipate that the acknowledgment to that is allegedly not. It’s the array of catechism you can never acknowledgment 100 percent in the negative. In added words, we can’t prove that article didn’t arise but to date a lot of blasting and abstraction has been done on Easter Island. Absolutely no affirmation has been begin of appearance by Andean peoples such as burst ceramics or bean accouterments or absolutely annihilation abroad that would announce the attendance of Andean bodies actuality so I anticipate it’s absolute absurd that these walls were congenital by Andean peoples or that they were afflicted by Andean builders. But they are appreciably agnate to some of the walls of Peru, abnormally these two examples, so I anticipate that will always abide somewhat of a question. I acquire that the prevailing acknowledgment to date, which is that the Peruvians had annihilation to do with them, is allegedly correct.

Question: In your contempo affairs you had two options for the Inca’s adeptness to actualize their arresting bean walls. I acquire that the Incas adeptness acquire had a altered approach. Instead of alive angular amid two stones with the additional actuality authentic alarmingly aloft the first, they could acquire formed angular by agreement the stones on their abandon and alive on two or three joints with three or four stones at one. They could acquire acclimated the ambit to transcribe one stone’s appearance to the next. Again aback both joints are finished, they would set the aboriginal bean of the wall. With the collective amid the additional and third bean already complete, they would alpha on abstraction the fourth bean to a ancillary of third stone, and so on until completion. This adjustment would acquire the advantages of alone affective the stones which could be enormous, once, afterwards the crisis of perching a several ton bean aloft a accomplished stonemason. ~Brian

Answer: This is a acceptable question. You acutely accepted from our “Nova” affairs that the easiest collective to fit amid two ample stones is the one that places them both abutting to one another, sitting on the ground. I acquire this is how the stones at the basal of the walls were fitted, but the alone way to use this adjustment for the joints aloft that would be to pre-fit them on the arena with the stones laying on their backs, and again arouse them in an cocked position. There are two affidavit why I acquire that this was not done, although I do anticipate it would acquire been a acceptable idea. Some sites were alone beneath construction. Sacsahuaman was one such site. There are abounding breach the activity was not complete aback the Incas chock-full alive on it. If that were the case, we would apprehend to acquisition affirmation of blocks lying on their backs actuality cut to fit above-mentioned to their accumulation on the wall. We acquisition no affirmation of that at Sacsahuaman or anyplace else. The added adumbration that we would apprehend to see is that the aerial beforehand of the bank would be finished. The aftereffect of the bean that is not yet placed on top would already abide because by definitions the stones would acquire benefited ahead lying on their backs out in avant-garde of the wall, but what we acquisition is that the aerial beforehand is absolutely rough, accustomed shapes. The aerial band of stones was never cut, advertence that the final beforehand was to be adapted in abode rather than on the arena out in avant-garde of the wall.

Question: One actuality approved application mirrors to calefaction the bedrock to dent abroad pieces of the bedrock afterwards any success. I anticipate his abstraction would allegedly acquire formed if he would acquire acclimated article like a crystal, which should be built-in to the region, to define the calefaction of the mirrors on to the rock. ~Alan

Answer: You’re apropos to Ivan’s adjustment of application mirrors and concentrated solar activity to appearance the rocks rather than bean hammers. I absolutely don’t know. It’s accessible that crystals would administer solar activity bigger than the mirrors that were proposed by Ivan, but we do not acquire and cannot acquisition any affirmation that the stones were broiled in adjustment to cut them to their final shapes. Instead what we acquisition is accepted affirmation of abstraction with bean hammers, and for this acumen we do not acquire that any method, whether crystals or mirrors which broiled the rocks, was acclimated to appearance them.

Question: Aback they congenital the grass bridge, how did they accelerate the braiding from one ancillary of the gorge to the other? ~Julia

Answer: This was not my articulation of the show, but I am accustomed with it. They angry a small-diameter braiding assimilate a swimmer who swam beyond the gorge. Application that small-diameter rope, they were able to cull a larger-diameter braiding across, to which they could again attach the absolute abundant changeless curve for the bridge. That does accession the catechism of whether this could acquire been done with the river in flood. They absolutely did this agreement with the river at adequately low baptize so that pond beyond it was not a difficult affair to do. I anticipate the acknowledgment is that it would acquire been absolute difficult to achieve that with the river in flood at aerial water. Not all the bridges were as continued as the one that “Nova” built, and in some cases a small-diameter braiding could acquire been befuddled beyond from one ancillary of the gorge to the other, accordingly eliminating the charge to swim, but for a continued arch like the one we congenital for the “Nova” show, I anticipate they absolutely had to do it at low baptize aback a swimmer could cautiously achieve it across.

Question: Could it be that the Incas acclimated abrasion amid massive blocks and absolutely arena them calm to get the absolute fit, possibly laid one block on its ancillary on the arena and somehow rotated the added one on its ancillary on top of it until it was a altogether collapsed surface, again booty the abutting block that will acquaintance up with it and bullwork it bottomward in the aforementioned way? I acquire credible them and it is absurd how they did it. ~Wayne

Answer: There are several affidavit why I acquire that the adjustment proposed actuality was not acclimated by the Incas. For one thing, breadth stones acquire been removed from the lower courses beneath them, we see the banner of the aerial bean in the acme of the lower ones and the banner is about of a absolute aberrant angled shape. That is to say that it is not a appearance that would acquire been created by alternating or affective the aerial block on top of the lower one. Also, the adjustment proposed would be absolute difficult to use on the vertical surfaces which are about fit, in fact, aloof as deeply as the accumbent surfaces.

Question: Vince, how did you aboriginal become absorbed in Inca civilization? ~Jen

Answer: I was a mountain-climbing adviser for abounding years and on a cruise in 1982 I took some accompany and aggressive audience to the Peruvian Andes. On the way into the mountain-climbing area, we went accomplished a cardinal of admirable Inca ruin sites, and I was so aflame that aback I alternate home, I absitively to apprehend about them and acquisition out about their history. I was abashed to acquisition that there was absolute little, if anything, to apprehend about them. No one had agitated to achieve maps of them or abstraction them in any detail. So I absitively to go aback the abutting year and achieve maps of them myself, and the blow is history because I got absorbed with the absolute action and acquire been aback to Peru at atomic already a year aback then, some years alike twice.

Question: How abounding abeyance bridges are there in the present day Inca empire? ~Connor

Answer: I’m not absolutely abiding what the afterwards acknowledgment to this is, but it is a absolute baby number, allegedly beneath than ten. There are abounding sites, however, breadth the bean abutments which already captivated Inca bridges abide in place. I would say those sites allegedly cardinal up to 100.

Question: I anticipate the stonemasons acclimated mud casts to achieve a absolute fit amid the ample stones. Aboriginal they smoothed the stones as abundant as accessible by hand. They again fabricated a mud casting of one bean face. They had to let it dry. Again they acclimated it to bullwork the added bean into appearance until it fabricated a acceptable fit. ~David

Answer: This admission has been appropriate by a cardinal of researchers, and with absolute baby or moderate-sized stones could possibly acquire been used. We acquire no affirmation that it was or was not, and so it’s a difficult catechism to answer, but for absolute ample stones, such as those we see at Sacsahuaman, the molds in adjustment to appearance the faces of those stones would be about as big as the stones them self, abnormally aback one assumes they would acquire to be able so as to authority calm for their use in construction. We do not acquire that this adjustment was used.

Question: What did the Incas acquire to defended the stonework into the mountains? ~Michael

Answer: Abounding of the walls that you see congenital by the Incas were application walls up adjoin a abruptness behind. And they are still afterwards 500 years of alone use in acceptable action generally. This tells you that they were very, absolute able-bodied congenital and that the distance of the arena abaft the bank was absolute anxiously planned. This bureau that arising was provided for so that the apple abaft the bank could not become saturated, heavy, and beforehand the bank down, and it additionally bureau that allegedly the bean walls are absolute abundant added at their abject into the abundance than they are at the top breadth you see them on the surface.

Question: How continued will the grass arch that was congenital last? ~Travis

Answer: The apple breadth the arch was congenital rebuilds the arch anniversary year, and we are told by the association of the apple adjoining that if they did not clean it every year, afterwards about two or three years it would become unserviceable. So I would acquire that conceivably two years would be the absolute activity bulk of a grass bridge.

Question: Vince, how did you aboriginal become absorbed in Inca civilization?

Answer: In 1982 I was a abundance adviser and I took some audience for a aggressive cruise in the Peruvian Andes. On the way into the mountain-climbing breadth we went accomplished a cardinal of admirable Inca ruin sites and I became so aflame that aback I alternate home, I absitively to apprehend about them and acquisition out about their history. I was abashed to acquisition that there was absolute little, if anything, to read. No one had agitated to achieve acceptable maps of them or abstraction them in any detail. So I absitively to go aback the abutting year and achieve maps of them myself. The blow is history, because I had been activity aback every year and sometimes alert a year anytime since.

Question: I acquire noticed that amid assignment they ate guinea pigs and potatoes. What added basic foods did they have? ~Rosemary

Answer: The acceptable aliment of the Andean Indies up aerial are potatoes and yuca, which is sometimes alleged ma’amock in the lower country of the Amazon basin. Added plants that are absolute important to the abridgement are corn, which is alleged the Spanish chat “maize,” and added vegetables. The alone basic antecedent of meat to the aboriginal Andean Indians above-mentioned to the accession of the Europeans was the guinea pig, which they grew in their homes, and again agrarian bold meat of assorted kinds which grew in the countryside. Today there is about little agrarian bold meat larboard and so sheep, pigs, beasts and so alternating acquire taken the abode of the agrarian game, but the guinea pig is still a absolute important basic in the diet of a aerial country Indians.

Question: I’m absorbed in the record-keeping in alloyed strands. Was there any archeological affirmation to abutment this method? ~Martha

Answer: There is absolute bright affirmation in the anatomy of about 400 actual quipus. The accessory I acquire you’re accredit to is the quipu. About 400 of them abide in museums about the world. And it was, as the questioner suggests, a absolute able accessory fabricated of knotted, black strings which was acutely acclimated to almanac advice abundantly in a afterwards form. We do not apperceive what advice was recorded but we acquire deciphered the adjustment in which the knots announce numbers so that scientists can apprehend the afterwards ethics and we apperceive from the assorted actual quipus they were acclimated to add and decrease and accumulate and divide. What we do not apperceive is the bulk to which abstruse information, like actual advice and added such non-numerical abstracts could be stored on a quipu. Abounding advisers anticipate the quipu was acclimated like the chaplet chaplet in a religious ambience or acclimated to achieve the anamnesis of acceptable legends and histories, and several of the Spanish chroniclers address this to acquire been the case. But we absolutely acquire no way to affirm that at present.

Question: The appearance didn’t acknowledgment the political arrangement the Incas acclimated to aphorism that ample an area. I acquire done some account on this and acquisition it fascinating. Acquire you done analysis on the Inca political system? ~Penny

Answer: The Inca political arrangement is not decidedly abutting to my specialty of research, but the Spanish chroniclers are adequately bright on the arrangement acclimated by the Incas to administer their empire. The sapa Inca himself was the absolute baton of the absolute system. He was somewhat agnate to the pharaoh in age-old Egypt in that he was both a political baton and believed to acquire all-powerful power. Beneath him was a absolute ample authority of admiral who managed every aspect of activity in the aboriginal Andes and managed it absolute calmly according to the Spanish chroniclers.

Question: How does the abstraction of the massive blocks analyze with added age-old structures like those of the Egyptians’, the Greeks’, Romans’, et cetera, accoutrement used? ~Karl

Answer: The megalithic stonework of the Incas is in, at atomic its finest experiences, somewhat altered in the world. There are, as it turns out, added places breadth a agnate admission was taken, but not absolute many. Best of the stonework of the old apple was done agnate to the way stonework today is done. That is to say the stones were boxlike off and adapted calm in a anticipated manner. Absolute aboriginal Egyptian stonework is somewhat agnate to Inca stonework and absolutely at the moment I arise to be on Easter Island, breadth we acquire begin stonework which is absolute agnate to Inca stonework. The aberration is the stonework of the Incas and these added abnormal builders was not boxlike off. In fact, the one affair you will never acquisition in an Inca bean bank is a aboveboard corner, a beeline band or a collapsed plain, unless it is by accident. The aftereffect is that every audible bean in the bank fits in alone one place. The bank cannot be prefabricated. It charge be erected one bean at a time with anniversary bean absolute anxiously adapted into its own authentic location.

Question: What blazon of rocks were the Incas using? Is there a aberration amid the bank bedrock and the bedrock acclimated for basic the angles? ~Robert

Answer: The Andes, of course, are a absolute complicated abundance ambit and many, abounding forms of bedrock abide there. The Incas chose the ones that they begin in the breadth in which they were architecture and approved to use the best actual that they could for construction. The aftereffect is that abounding monuments are congenital out of altered stone. For example, the stonework at Machu Picchu is abundantly white granite; the stonework in Cuzco is about aphotic andesite; the stonework at Sacsahuaman in the hills aloft Cuzco is about dejected limestone. The stonework at Ollantaytambo, a ample ruin not far from Cuzco is rhyolite. In all cases the abstraction of the bean had to be done by application an alike harder material. About speaking, what we acquire begin is assurance of dolorite, which is a absolute brittle… hard, not brittle, but adamantine actual with which the softer stones could be formed into shape.

Question: Had the Inca walls been x-rayed or advised contrarily abaft the credible face? Conceivably it’s alone the avant-garde face of the stones which fit calm so well. Admitting still challenging, it would abate the credible adversity a bit, a pretense ambuscade reality. That would achieve the Incas the aboriginal announcement agency. ~Robert

Answer: I’m blind of any abstruse analysis such as x-raying that adeptness acquire been acclimated for this purpose, but it is absolutely accidental aback we acquire abounding places breadth the aboriginal walls acquire collapsed and we can apprehend the array of the aboriginal architecture in the breadth that has collapsed out of the wall. And the acknowledgment is that in some cases absolutely what the questioner suggests is true, abnormally the vertical joints are about adapted alone at their alien face and not absolute able-bodied adapted aback into the abyss of the wall. In about every case, however, the bedding face, that is to say the accumbent face on which the bedrock bears, is well-fitted throughout its absolute width.

Question: Did you accord any anticipation to the way the Incas originally agitated the bean afore bringing it to the architecture site? If they were able to breach up a absolute ample bean into architecture block admeasurement and accumulate a almanac of the aboriginal arrangement of accident and again reconstitute that adjustment at the architecture armpit they could save a abundant accord of assignment in reshaping, aback the blocks they were putting calm had originally fit calm in the aboriginal place, and a minimum of acid would be required. ~Barry

Answer: This is an arresting abstraction which has occurred to a cardinal of us researching this question. However, in about every case we apperceive of, the quarries of the Incas were artlessly ample bedrock fields breadth afar bedrock had collapsed from abundance faces and were alleged for their affection and their shape, asperous appearance and again abject bottomward to the architecture armpit for finishing. There is one barring to this that I’m acquainted of, and it is at the armpit of Sillustani, abreast the shores of Lake Titicaca in Peru breadth a bean is absolutely actuality chopped out of alive bedrock in the aforementioned address in which the Egyptians, for example, quarried their rocks. So the Incas were allegedly acquainted of and acclimated this adjustment but it is very, absolute rare.

Question: At the acme of the Inca empire, what was the population? ~Elmo

Answer: We absolutely don’t know, of course, and the Spanish chronicles are not absolute bright on this question. But assorted advisers acquire arise up with estimates based on assorted aboriginal annal and those estimates ambit from conceivably six actor to as abounding as 20 million. But the acknowledgment absolutely is unknown.

Question: Didn’t they assignment holes in the rocks, cascade in water, let winter arise to benumb the water, which expands the water, appropriately arise the rock? ~Gene Kopelson

Answer: We acquire not begin affirmation of this, although some of the stones in some of the quarries appearance curve of about bank pits dug in a beeline pattern. It is accessible that these were advised to acquire board wedges, which were again wet and aback the copse swelled beneath the wetting. The abstraction was to able the bedrock open. This is a adjustment that has been acclimated abroad in the apple and was acclimated in Peru in colonial times. We absolutely aren’t abiding whether the rocks we see in the quarries that appearance this arrangement date from the Inca aeon or conceivably from the aeon anon afterwards the accession of the Spanish conquistadores.

Question: Do the blocks charge to fit altogether throughout or aloof alternating the edge? Is there any affirmation that they were beneath authentic nearer to the centermost of the blocks? ~Leon

Answer: This is agnate to an beforehand question, and the acknowledgment is that in abounding cases the rocks are altogether adapted throughout their absolute abyss beyond both their accumbent bedding faces and their vertical ascent faces. But in some instances we acquisition what the questioner suggests, that alone the accumbent bedding face is adapted altogether for the approaching abyss of the bedrock and the vertical ascent face is adapted altogether alone at the arresting edge, and abaft that the rocks artlessly abate abroad from one accession and afar ample is placed there to balance the bedrock in its position.

Question: It appears that the avant-garde affable apple is no bout adjoin the Inca’s adeptness to actuate a ample activity force. The capability is awesome. What do you anticipate enabled this absurd phenomenon? ~G. Michael

Answer: It is bright that the Incas and for that bulk added pre-industrial societies were absolute accomplished at managing ample activity forces. And it is accepted that in the case of the Incas a ample activity force was accessible in the anatomy of taxation. The bodies that were in the Inca authority beneath the aphorism of the Incas did not pay taxes in the way we do in the anatomy of money. Instead they paid in the anatomy of their time. And at some aeon of the year aback they were not bald in their villages for agronomical or added assignment important to circadian life, they were alleged into account of the state, and abounding of these bodies were put on architecture projects. We don’t apperceive how abounding of them there were, but the monuments allege for themselves. It acutely complex absolute ample numbers of people, and these bodies charge acquire been managed absolute calmly in adjustment to achieve what was done in the about abbreviate time the Inca authority was at its peak. This time lasted about from the mid 1400’s until the accession of the Spaniards in 1532, which, aback one thinks about it, is not a absolute continued aeon of time to achieve the architecture affairs that we see broadcast about the Andes today.

Question: Why was no advice about the methods acclimated for the architecture of the walls anesthetized on to the address of the builders? ~Nancy

Answer: We acquire no idea, but the questioner is absolutely right, about no such advice is accepted to exist. It may be that the processes were so accepted and so able-bodied accepted amid the bodies at that time it never occurred to them that there was any point in authoritative a almanac of them. Also, of course, in the case of the Incas, who had no accounting language, it is cryptic what anatomy that almanac would acquire taken. We do have, as an beforehand questioner suggested, quipus, which are askance strings on which annal were kept, but we acquire no abstraction what advice was recorded there aback all we can do is apprehend afterwards ethics of the knots but cannot apprehend what those afterwards ethics signify.

Question: What types of weapon artifacts acquire you uncovered? Atlatal, bow and arrow, bola? Additionally what accoutrement are evident? ~John

Answer: In my own assignment I do no excavations and accordingly I acquire baldheaded annihilation of the affectionate appropriate by the questioner. However, added researchers, of course, have. I acquire that the Inca aeon was continued afterwards the use of the atlatal accomplished in the Andes, if it anytime was acclimated there. The weapons we apperceive to acquire been accepted to the Andes are bolas for communicable animals; we apperceive the Bow and arrow was acclimated by their affiliated tribes in the Amazonian basin. We did not apperceive whether the Incas themselves advantaged the bow and arrow, but we doubtable they did not. Their admired weapon was the sling.

And they were reportedly accomplished marksmen with the sling.

The advantage of the bung over the bow and arrow in the Andes is that armament is abounding for the bung and about non-existent for bow and arrows. But we absolutely don’t know.

The added weapon that was absolute broadly admired by the Incas was the hand-held club, and a abundant abounding altered varieties of clubs and billy active acquire been begin in excavations. So that suggests that Inca warfare at a ambit was abundantly conducted by the throwing of stones with slings and by possibly the use of javelins and spears and at abutting abode by the use of clubs and maces.

Question: What was the dress of the age-old Incans fabricated of and was it colorful? It is appealing algid up there in the mountains, isn’t it? ~Joshua

Answer: Yes, it is absolutely algid up in the mountains, and the accouterment fabricated by the Incas was abundantly fabricated out of the absolute of llamas and alpacas, the New Apple adjustment of the camels, and are still broadly acclimated by the Indians of the aerial Andes. In the lower country, breadth such absolutely balmy apparel were not needed, affection was used. In the littoral deserts, for example, it is anticipation that best of the apparel were fabricated from cotton. In all cases, they were absolute bright and we acquire abounding examples of Andean weavings, some of which are anticipation to be amid the finest weavings anytime fabricated in the world.

Question: Aloof as the arch was congenital with a accumulation of bodies active abreast the river, is it apparent that the Incas could acquire aggregate ample groups of bodies to assignment on the stones? Is it accessible to acquire had ample groups of bodies alive on the stones at one time in adjustment to body the temple and added buildings? ~Chuck

Answer: It is accepted that the bridges were abundantly congenital by adjoining villagers. However, in the case of the ample bean monuments, it is beneath bright that bounded activity was important to the task. As I mentioned in acknowledgment to an beforehand question, activity was a anatomy of taxation in the Andes and it is accepted from the Spanish chroniclers that bodies about catholic abundant distances from their home in adjustment to pay this activity tax. They basically went wherever the accompaniment told them they were bald and that was about abounding miles, many, abounding afar from their own homes.

Question: Were the workers disciplinarian for activity or were they accustomed to acknowledgment to their built-in lands? ~David

Answer: The workers beneath the Incas and the Andes were not disciplinarian in the authentic faculty of the word. They were absolutely advantageous their taxes, and during the blow of the year they lived a about chargeless activity in their own villages, adopting their own aliment and demography affliction of the aliment of circadian life. They formed on monuments for the accompaniment on a melancholia abject and during the blow of the year had their own clandestine lives in their own homes and villages.

Question: Did the Incas barter alfresco Peru by acreage or sea? ~Mabel

Answer: One of the things that fabricated the Inca authority so able and so abundant was the actuality that the Incas had a adeptness for abutting assorted altered regions of the country and instituting barter amid them. So the acknowledgment is that there was an astronomic bulk of barter activity on both by acreage and by sea up and bottomward the bank of South America. We acquisition articles from Ecuador as far south as Chile and Argentina and Bolivia. We acquisition articles from those countries as far arctic as Colombia. We’ve acquisition articles from Amazonian jungles in burials and added locations out on the littoral chastening of Peru. So it is bright that abundant aftermath and barter took abode all through the Andes beneath the Inca empire.

Question: What is the latest advice on what chic of Inca resided in Machu Picchu? ~Rick

Answer: We absolutely apperceive absolute little about who resided at Machu Picchu. Beforehand in this aeon aback Hirameigham aboriginal visited the armpit and arise it to the alfresco world, he instituted excavations out of which a cardinal of animal burials were found. Abounding of these burials he believed were female, and accordingly he proposed that Machu Picchu was a armpit advantaged by the alleged Virgins of the Sun. This was a accumulation of women in the account of the Inca who, according to the Spanish chroniclers, about lived in absolute appropriate and absolute alone locations. Subsequent abstraction of the ashen charcoal that Hirameigham begin has absolutely contradicted this and begin that there is not a bright affirmation that the skeletons are all female, and accordingly we absolutely don’t apperceive who lived there. Added research, however, has apparent that the armpit of Machu Picchu was allegedly the country acreage of one of the Sapa Inca rulers, allegedly Pachacuti.

Question: Are the Incas the age-old recorded citizenry of that breadth in Peru? ~Aras

Answer: By no means. The Incas did not absolutely abide as a adeptness until age-old about 1200 A.D., and by 1450 A.D. they began their amplification into an authority that amid the absolute Andes. That authority was destroyed with the accession of the Spanish in 1532. However, acculturation in the Andes began allegedly 1000 B.C., and abounding cultures preceded the Incas and had arise and gone above-mentioned to the acceleration of the Incas in 1200 A.D.

Question: Is it accessible the Incas could acquire confused the bean blocks by rolling them over lengths of bond placed beyond the route? ~Peg

Answer: I’m not abiding what the questioner bureau by “cordage,” although the acknowledgment to the accepted catechism of how the Incas confused ample rocks through the countryside is still beneath study. We do not acquire in best cases absolute bright roadways to announce the adjustment that was acclimated to carriage the stones. We about acquisition ramps in and about the ruin sites themselves, but out in the countryside we acquisition absolute little affirmation of any authentic avenue which we acquire was acclimated to move stones, and accordingly we absolutely acquire absolute little affirmation of how it was done.

Question: How do you anticipate they begin a authentic akin and vertical? ~Dennis

Answer: A authentic vertical is of beforehand adequately accessible to acquisition by use of a erect bob, and assorted accessories acquire been begin in excavations at Inca ruin sites which we booty to be erect bobs. In any event, they would be acceptable for that purpose. As far as whether akin was important to the Inca, we apperceive that it was because they were masters at managing baptize in their agronomical complexes. We do not about apperceive how they managed to devise canals, for archetype at an alike brand over afar and afar and afar of country. Acutely some anatomy of leveling was used, but we acquire no affirmation of what it was.

Question: Did the built-in Andean bodies eat any audible aliment which helped them to bigger cope with the aerial distance air that they assignment in? ~Bob

Answer: I’m not acquainted of any absolute articulation amid the foods eaten in the Andes and an acclimatization to a aerial altitude. It is my compassionate from medical bodies in Peru today that the boilerplate Andean Indian is built-in with no greater lung accommodation than you or I have, but that by the time they die they may acquire alert the lung accommodation you or I have; in added words, their adjustment to distance absolutely occurs afterwards address and is not genetically transmitted. As far as what aftereffect the foods they eat would acquire on this, I absolutely don’t know.

Question: I already apprehend that the joints in the Inca masonry walls were fabricated by overextension accomplished beach amid the blocks and again sliding the blocks adjoin one accession so that the sand, acting as an abrasive, wore bottomward both blocks evenly. It was additionally said that there were protrusions on the blocks breadth ropes could be absorbed to facilitate the acid motion. These protrusions were again agape off afterwards the bean was in place. Acquire you heard of this technique? What are your thoughts on its veracity? Acknowledgment for your attention. ~David

Answer: An beforehand questioner mentioned additionally the abstraction of abrading the rocks calm with a beach credible amid in adjustment to actualize the shapes, but breadth bedrock walls acquire arise afar and we can see the appearance of the joints inside, that seems very, absolute unlikely. So I agnosticism that that adjustment was used. It is true, however, that the faces of abounding of the blocks still appearance affirmation of and in some cases the absolute appearance of a bean protrusion, several about actuality alternating the basal bend of anniversary bean in a wall. I accede with the questioner that these were designs to be removed and allegedly were present on abounding added blocks than we acquisition them on today. I agnosticism actively that they were acclimated for the purpose of attached ropes to the rocks in adjustment to move them. For one thing, abounding of these rocks counterbalance astronomic numbers of bags and they would be about absurd to move by that method. I anticipate allegedly best of those protrusions were acclimated as places to administer levers to the stones in adjustment to move them already they were abreast the accession which they were advised to be placed.

Question: In an beforehand acknowledgment you talked about the foods that the bodies ate, but you didn’t acknowledgment any protein. What was their protein source? ~Lauren

Answer: My beforehand acknowledgment alone a aloft antecedent of protein, and that was the meat of camelid animals. There were two breed of camelid animals that were agrarian beneath the Inca times and abide agrarian today, the guanaco and the vicuna. In addition, there were two breed of camelid animals that were calm beneath the Incas and abide acclimated in domesticed anatomy by Indians today. That is the llama, or “yama,” as it would be said in South America, and the alpaca. Both provided absolute and meat and allegedly cheese of some array to the Incas in their diet, and all of these in the anatomy of aliment would acquire been important sources of protein. Also, as I mentioned earlier, the guinea pig was and charcoal a aloft antecedent of protein in the diet of the aerial country Indians.

Question: One way to fit ample stones calm would be to actualize a board anatomy that would be failing and would fit up adjoin one face of one bean or a area of it. The bean would be smoothed to fit the form. Again accession board anatomy would be created to fit into that board form. The additional form, which now fits altogether into the aboriginal form, would be placed adjoin the additional stone. The additional bean could be able until it fit the additional board form. At that point the aboriginal bean would now fit into the additional bean and would alone acquire to be confused once. ~Marc

Answer: I’m acquainted of several advisers who favor a adjustment agnate to the one proposed by the questioner. Basically it’s a bulk of templating and application the template, which is apparently lighter and easier to move than the aboriginal bean in adjustment to achieve a beginning fit. The botheration with this aback ample stones are complex is that the arrangement itself charge beforehand its dimensional adherence to a bulk of millimeters over surfaces that are in some cases abounding aboveboard meters in extent. It’s alien absolutely what abstracts and methods the Incas had to accommodate backbone and adherence in a light-weight anatomy alleged for by the questioner’s method, and, therefore, we anticipate that this adjustment allegedly was not used.

Question: Is there any affirmation that the adept bean cutters were awful admired in their society? In added words, were they at the top of their amusing ladder? ~Julie

Answer: We acquire adequately acceptable affirmation from the Spanish chroniclers that the monuments were abundantly advised and their architecture was supervised by a appropriate chic of stonemasons or architects or builders, alarm them what you will. We acquire acumen to acquire that they were admired and captivated positions of admission in the Inca empire.

Question: Do you apperceive the breadth and acme of the bigger bulk breadth the ramparts or tie-downs for abeyance bridges acquire been begin carved into the bedrock as you begin in the apple at the show?

Also would authoritative the ancillary walls college abate the likelihood of flipping a arch like this? The bed of the arch needs to be about close to accommodate a aisle a animal can airing beyond but the atrocity of the ancillary braiding should acquire some appulse on its stability. Is there any affirmation that the abject of the arch and the ancillary walls adeptness be anchored at altered levels on any of these bridges? ~Dave

Answer: While I was not allotment of the bridge-building aggregation in the authentic “Nova” appearance that we did in Peru, I do apperceive a little bit about the subject. I do not apperceive breadth the longest bulk is, although the arch we did was a adequately continued span. If I recall, it was about 50 meters. There may be some best than that, but I agnosticism that there were abounding that were abundant best than that. The added affair I would say to this questioner is that the arch that we congenital for our appearance was a about baby and about ambiguous adjustment of what we are told by the Spanish chroniclers were masterpieces of engineering beneath Inca times. It is known, for example, that the Spaniards could ride a absolutely armored horse beyond some of the bridges in question. It is somewhat appalling to anticipate of accomplishing that but it tells us that the bridges of the Incas charge acquire been absolute abundant added abundant than the one you saw in the “Nova” film.

Question: Gold brand is a absolute bendable metal. Is it accessible that the Incas agilely formed a attenuate gold bowl assimilate the accepting bean surface, again aerial it and acclimated it as the arrangement for abstraction the abject of the bean that would blow on it? ~Dennis

Answer: It is authentic that the Incas had lots of gold, but it is additionally authentic that gold is absolute pliable. Alike if they had abundant gold to use for the adjustment you suggest, the bendability of the actual would acquire fabricated it absolute difficult to beforehand the appearance of the absolute ample collective systems in some of the Inca walls. Also, we would apprehend to acquisition minute traces of gold formed into the accepting surfaces, alike today aback the stones are breach apart. We do not acquisition that. For both of these reasons, I anticipate it absolute absurd that gold was acclimated as a arrangement in abstraction stones.

Question: Could the elements of the stones acquire been sanded bottomward or burst bottomward to crumb form, again adapted with baptize into a aboveboard casting larboard to harden. Ashanti

Answer: This aforementioned abstraction of abstraction the stones from ashamed bean was appropriate some years ago by one of the advisers alive on the NOVA blur ambidextrous with the architecture of the abundant pyramid in Egypt. For somewhat the aforementioned affidavit we anticipate this adjustment was not acclimated in Peru. The bean acclimated for best of the walls in Peru does not accommodate itself to reconformation with baptize into a array of a concrete-like substance. Accordingly we anticipate it absolute absurd that any adjustment of this affectionate was acclimated by the incas.

Question: I am afraid at the abridgement of analysis in the abstraction that the baptize surrounding the Inca authority wasn’t used. They had the bureau and accomplishment to account those angled joints, to bang abroad by suspending baptize and rope. The abrasion of the bedrock is already evident, but seems to acquire been looked over, the angled rocks acclimated for acid are acutely breakable by the river, the abundance area would’ve provided the absolute befalling to body such a system, alter the baptize and set up a base at which to abrade the pre-determined stone. Am I in arrant confounding or is this a astute theory? Acknowledgment for any response. ~Steve

Answer: I am not absolutely abiding I acquire your method, but it seems that you are suggesting that the abstraction of the stones adeptness acquire been done by baptize beneath burden acerbic the surfaces away. We anticipate this is absolute absurd for two reasons. First, the stones acclimated by the Incas were absolute adamantine and accordingly it would acquire taken absolutely eons to achieve the appearance by simple burden of baptize adjoin the surface. Second, instead of affirmation of baptize burden we acquisition the marks larboard by the bean hammers that the Incas acclimated to achieve these shapes. For both of these reasons, I acquire your adjustment was not acclimated by the Incas.

Question: Are their still places that acquire not been begin larboard by the Inca. Is their affidavit that the Inca may acquire sailed beyond the oceans and or added bodies sailed beyond exchanging information, adeptness and ideas? If so breadth can this advice be found? ~Carlo

Answer: Yes, there are still places that are begin occasionally that were larboard by the Incas. In fact, my own captivation in the Andes is abundantly that of an explorer. We about acquisition new ruin sites, decidedly in the absolute blubbery boscage of the eastern abruptness of the abundance range, which is contrarily absolute difficult to explore. It is additionally authentic that the Incas had a huge bank all the way bottomward the west ancillary of South America and barter took abode alternating that bank by bureau of littoral boats of assorted kinds. But that is not to say that the Incas were a abyssal people, and it is absolute absurd that they sailed beyond ample expanses of ocean. We absolutely acquire absolutely no affirmation of acquaintance amid the Incas and added cultures in added genitalia of the apple or affirmation begin in South America of visitations by those cultures.

Question: Vince, I afresh (April,1998) had the amusement of visiting Cuzco to apparatus a class accounting by me on the accountable of Implementation of Internet for the KHIPU Institute. While there I was accustomed tours of Machu Picchu, Sacsahuaman, Urubamba, Chinchero, and others which I acquire not to spell, but I’m abiding you apperceive of which I speak. My catechism is on the “cracking/cutting” of the stones theory. It is my compassionate that holes were placed in the rocks. Again branches were placed axial and watered to achieve them grow, appropriately arise the stones. What is your booty on this and did you analysis this method? ~Harvey

Answer: It is authentic that abounding of the stones that we acquisition in Inca walls acquire holes placed in them. We anticipate those holes were used, however, as credibility for the admittance of levers in the movement of the stones into position. The added holes that we acquisition in stones are sometimes begin in the quarry areas breadth stones will appearance a band of baby pockets that arise to acquire been adamant in the bean to acquire board wedges. We apperceive that this adjustment was acclimated in colonial times to breach stones by cloudburst baptize on the wedges so they would aggrandize and breach accessible the rock. We do not apperceive whether this adjustment was acclimated by the Incas, however, because abounding of the stones in the quarries could acquire been done in colonial rather Inca times.

Question: The harbinger arch congenital in the Inca tradition, how continued could it last? Does it rot with the accustomed distance of rain? Or does it able and crumble beneath the sun’s UV rays? ~John

Answer: I was not complex alone in the architecture of the braiding arch that was filmed during the NOVA show, but I was told that the apple that did the architecture assignment repeats it every added year as a array of apple ritual. It was my aftereffect that they acquainted if it was not replaced every added year that it would become alarming due to the furnishings of acclimate and so forth. Yes, the abstracts complex were accountable to abasement over a aeon of time, allegedly a bulk of several years.

Question: I visited Machu Picchu in 1984. At that time, the adviser told us that allegedly the Incas acclimated appropriate herbs to “melt” the bean and accord it the absolute appearance for their constructions. Acquire you heard about this before? Unfortunately, he explained, no almanac of which herbs were acclimated to achieve this was kept. ~Rocio

Answer: I acquire heard this aforementioned rumor abounding times that some anatomy of boscage bulb was acclimated to cook the stones and accord the bean the bendability to actualize the shapes in Inca walls. I anticipate this approach is nonsense. There are, however, some stones that are added calmly formed aback wet than dry and it is accessible that this authentic fable grew up about that idea. It may be that the Incas would wet their stones above-mentioned to alive them, on the approach that it fabricated the alive somewhat easier with their bean tools.

Question: I anticipation Vince Lee was absolute correct, additionally with the apparatus he acclimated for abstraction the edges. Could this conceivably acquire been done, alone with the ample stones actuality carved out while laying on their sides-as array of a jigsaw puzzle, and again erected AFTER all the abandon had been carved and smoothed so perfectly. Affective them with added of the affluence as was apparent in the affective of the ample bean by the townspeople AND the use of the tool? ~Jimie

Answer: This would be a acceptable idea. In actuality in my convenance as an artist in Wyoming, we about body log cabins this way today. That is to say, the logs are adapted calm elsewhere, numbered, taken apart, and re-erected on the site. There are two affidavit why we anticipate this was not done with the abundant bean walls of Peru. First, one would apprehend to acquisition affirmation of stones actuality adapted either at the quarries or about the area of sites that were alone while they were beneath construction, and we do not acquisition this affirmation in either of those two places. Also, we would apprehend to acquisition the acme of walls which were larboard unfinished—nevertheless, carved to acquire the stones that were to be adapted aloft them. And instead we acquisition that the acme of the walls which were larboard amateurish are raw, accustomed shapes, acerb suggesting that the abutting beforehand was to be adapted in-place rather than elsewhere.

Question: What evidence, if any, suggests that the Inca acculturation had the aforementioned ambiance as we see today? Is it accessible that melting glaciers or added accustomed acclimate armament played a allotment in the actual administration aspects of architecture some of the Inca structures, and/or aided the Incas with baptize and aliment supplies? ~Steven

Answer: It is my compassionate that there is no able affirmation that the altitude in the Andes was abundant altered in Inca times than it is today. However, it is authentic that the glaciers in the aerial mountains that are begin all through the Inca authority were allegedly abundant beyond in Inca times than they are today, because the glaciers of the apple acquire been in a aeon of recession anytime aback those times and alike today we acquisition that in a bulk of 10 or 15 years the admeasurement of a berg is bargain considerably. That in about-face bureau that there may acquire been added baptize abounding from the beyond glaciers into the brook systems in the Andes during Inca times than there is today. But we do not acquire affirmation that the acclimate or the altitude was contrarily absolute abundant altered than it is now.

Question: Was it fun actuality there and architecture the bridge? I enjoyed the show. ~Liat

Answer: Yes, it was a abundant accord of fun accomplishing the absolute activity with NOVA. I was not one of those who helped body the grass arch aback I was active chopping on stones in a altered breadth but I apperceive that the bodies who congenital the arch had a abundant time accomplishing it and I absolutely enjoyed the allotment I played in architecture a little allotment of an Inca bean wall.

Question: How busy were the Incas complex in administering baptize to their settlements for accouterments and added purposes? Did they await on activity anon to the baptize sources like streams, lakes and rivers? Or did they acquire a somewhat busy accessible works system? ~Peter

Answer: The Inca acculturation was basically agrarian like all pre-industrial civilizations so that the assembly of aliment was one of the axial projects managed by the state. For this acumen in the high, dry Andes baptize administration by the accompaniment was very, absolute important. So a abundant accord of baptize administration went on in the Inca empire. We acquire begin canals, dams, reservoirs, and about every ruin armpit of any aftereffect will acquire one or added baths and a cardinal of fountains. It is absolute bright that baptize administration was important to the Incas.

Question: Would it acquire been accessible for the Incas to acquire a accelerate fabricated of logs to cull them beyond the basin to breadth they would be used? ~Jess

Answer: It was absolutely accessible for the Incas to achieve slides of some array out of logs in adjustment to move ample stones. The one blasting that we did during the NOVA activity at Ollantay Tambo did not appearance any affirmation of this, but that’s not to say it wasn’t done. Aback we were on our contempo activity on Easter Island it became bright that breadth absolute ample stones are complex it would about be necessary, about assertive to use log sleds of some array and I anticipate it is apparent that the Incas did the aforementioned thing. We acquire not yet begin any close affirmation of it.

Question: With account to that mirror theory, you acknowledgment that you acquire credible no affirmation of melting of rocks anywhere. I saw a affairs on a appearance alleged “Timeless Places” and it showed absorbing pictures of some rocks at a quarry in Q’enqo that attending appreciably like they were melted. There are sections of bedrock that attending like addition was testing some apparatus (they looked agnate to scribbling with a ball-point pen aback the ink dries up). The pictures were absolutely startling. Are you accustomed with these features? and do you acquire any explanation?

Other assumption mentioned was about a abode (I airship where) that may acquire had a allowance that was lined in gold which may acquire formed some affectionate of capacitor. This is a little bizarre, but absolutely intriguing. They accepted that they could see accessible affirmation of some affectionate of ascendancy box. Some adeptness antecedent may be possible, but acknowledgment to the conquistadors, we may never know.

Also apparent at Q’enqo were blocks of bean that were in mid-excavation, and there were these ample (18″ dia) bore holes about the block. Could these bore holes be fabricated application the bang stones? ~Kelly

Answer: I acquire been to the carved stones in Q’enqo in the hills aloft Cuzco a cardinal of times but I charge acknowledge I acquire not credible or at atomic did not apprehension the specific appearance you mention. The abstraction about that the Incas somehow broiled bean in adjustment to achieve applicable or abstraction seems adopted to best of us who acquire advised their techniques. For one affair we acquisition affirmation everywhere of beak marks on the stones advertence that the cuts were fabricated by added stones rather than by reflected calefaction of concentrated heat. Accession way to attending at this is if the Incas absolutely had some array of technology for apperception the calefaction of the sun, it is about assertive that the Spaniards would acquire arise it. They accustomed afterwards all about at the acme of the Inca authority although the Incas had afresh suffered some setbacks in the anatomy of civilian wars and an beginning of baby pox or some added European ache that had arise bottomward from Mexico. Nevertheless, their adeptness was as its aerial point. Surely, had such a address been acclimated by the Incas it would acquire been arise by the Spaniards. Accession way to attending at this is as one of the advisers on our NOVA activity in Peru said at the time, if the Incas had a way to cook bean was reflected solar energy, why didn’t they artlessly cook the Spaniards out of their saddles aback they were attacked by the conquistadors.

Question: Is it accessible that the Inca builders planned the adjustment of anniversary bean so able-bodied in beforehand that they were able to fit the stones while they were still in the quarry? Again anniversary could be confused to the armpit and placed calm like a jigsaw addle piece. ~R.M.

Answer: I acquire from the diction of your catechism that you acquire the Inca stones were quarried from a mountainside, chopped out of the mountainside in some array of adjustment that could again be reassembled in their walls. The actuality of the bulk is that with very, absolute few exceptions the Incas artlessly took boulders from bedrock slides at the face of cliffs and on mountainsides and shaped them for their purposes. That is to say the boulders were not calm in the abundance afore they were acclimated by the Incas and accordingly it seems absolute absurd that the Incas reassembled adjoining boulders in their walls.

Question: Could the bigger stones acquire been adapted by scribing the bench to a casted archetype (supported by balk lattice) of the faces of the stone? It would counterbalance MUCH less, and could be advised with lashed “legs” for safe accession & alive under. With authentic advertence marks, it adeptness alike be done in sections. ~Gordon

Question: Could the Incas acquire fabricated mud castings of the surfaces of the stones as templates for the fitting? I acquire that the adjustment you acclimated was too annoying and capricious for such absurd results. ~Tom

Answer to the two antecedent questions: Both accord with templating of the stones actuality fitted. I should aggrandize on my acknowledgment to awning this and added agnate questions that we acquire accustomed in the aftermost few days. There are absolutely alone three means to achieve the fit that we see in Inca bean masonry. One is airship and absurdity involving abounding movements of the bean until, by baby increments, the fit is achieved. The botheration with this with absolute ample stones is that affective these absolute ample stones many, abounding times would be horrendously difficult, dangerous, and the likelihood of chips and errors actuality fabricated would be absolute high. We do not acquisition affirmation of such chips or errors on any of the edges or faces of the stone. The additional adjustment would be templating wherein a failing but contrarily absolute facsimile of one of the stones would be commissioned for the bean itself and again a airship and absurdity operation would arise which would abstain the the call of affective a absolute abundant stone. This adeptness acquire been done for baby stones but for the ample stones of Sacsahuaman, the arrangement itself would be monstrous. Abounding of them would be abundant beyond than an auto and it is cryptic to us what actual or adjustment the Incas had to aftermath such a template. Afterwards all, it would acquire to be both ablaze weight and able abundant to abide the accent of many, abounding movements and it would additionally acquire to be dimensionally stable. If it were fabricated for archetype out of wood, it would tend to compress as the copse broiled out and yet we acquisition that the stones fit to tolerances sometimes of beneath than a millimeter. It is absolute absurd that the Incas had any way of authoritative such a ample article strong, ablaze enough, and so dimensionally abiding that they could achieve this. These two alternatives actuality eliminated, the alone one left, it seems to me, is scribing. My adjustment is a way of application scribing but it may be that there was a bigger way of application the book than the one that I acquire so far been able to arise up with.

Question: The Incas were austere mathematicians, they knew numbers, they acclimated the Quipu, which is an abundant little apparatus fabricated with ropes, and knots, altered lengths and sizes, able-bodied my approach is that they affected every audible man, and admeasurement and position of every audible bean can you explain on this? ~Brunella

Answer: It is authentic that the Incas had a adequately avant-garde arrangement of addition and they acclimated numbers for the recording of abounding things. However, activated to the applicable of stones it is difficult to see how numbers would acquire been of abundant advice because the stones are not dimensionally accurate. They are not square, there are no appropriate angled corners, and there are no collapsed planes. They are basically all odd shaped, on of a affectionate volumes. It is absolute difficult to see how a afterwards arrangement could acquire declared such shapes in any way that would be accessible to the bean fitters.

Question: I was apprehensive if all Inca walls and or monuments are aloof 1 band thick? you allocution like they are. this may be a blemish in their absolute acutely process. the Egyptians had abounding band blubbery pyramids, yet the Inca didn’t? maybe this is a blemish in their architecture because it was alone advised to fit the aboriginal 3-4 abandon of the rock, and not damsel 6 sides… ~Brian

Answer: It is authentic that best of the walls that we see in Inca barrio are either application walls which acquire alone one accomplished face (the alien face) or in some cases they are the walls of barrio in which case either one ample bean is accomplished on both abandon or in some cases stones are put aback to aback so that alone their alien faces are accomplished and their close faces (inside the wall) are larboard rough. This is absolutely not clashing what was done by the Egyptians. It is authentic that the Egyptians had absolute heavy, blubbery structures with absolute blubbery walls, the pyramids conceivably actuality the ultimate example. But it is additionally authentic that the fit of the stones axial the pyramid is absolute rough. Alone the accomplished surfaces, whether it be the exoteric of the pyramid or the autogenous faces of the spaces aural the pyramid, were absolutely accomplished absolute finely. All of the joints axial amid those adapted faces are absolutely absolutely rough, not clashing those of the Incas.

Question: Is it accessible that the Inca bodies aerial up the bean blocks assimilate the blow of the bank by a arrangement of ropes and pulleys, or would they not acquire that technology yet? ~John Eric

Answer: There is absolutely no affirmation that the Inca bodies had the use of the caster or the caster in any faculty that would acquire been accessible to architecture monuments. The use of the caster was absolutely a adequately backward apparatus alike in the old apple but does not arise to acquire anytime been begin in the new apple above-mentioned to the accession of the Spaniards.

Question: My bedmate & I abundantly enjoyed the affairs on Inca bean masonry. We agreed with Jean Pierre that the alone with the emblematic mirrors was a absolute idiot.

In discussing the catechism of how the stones were set calm so well, abnormally the absolute ample ones, Jim came up with a thought. The ample stones cannot be confused calmly to always analysis the set. Conceivably a acting was used. If a grass & mud casting were to be fabricated of the ample stone, one could casting a lighter adjustment of the bean (perhaps additionally in grass & mud) with which one could use to fit the bean setting. One charge not casting the accomplished bean but alone the bend actuality set. At aboriginal I anticipation any detail would be absent in the casting, but again I anticipation about how brownish abstracts are cast.

Is there a achievability that castings could acquire been fabricated of some bounded actual that would acquire accustomed the detail of the bean to be preserved? ~Joan

Answer: I would accredit you to the rather continued acknowledgment I gave to one of the beforehand questions. All questioners aggravating to acquisition an another to scribing for the fit should accede that the collective complex is one ample alike all of which charge be adapted at the aforementioned time. You cannot fit the basal aboriginal and again fit the ascent face abutting to it. You cannot fit the bend aboriginal and again fit the faces adjoining to the corners later. The accomplished collective charge be adapted at one time so that any arrangement acclimated for the purpose charge be absolutely as ample as the absolute bean or at atomic the adapted faces of the bean actuality fitted.

Question: Isn’t there a accumulation of Inca address that adeptness apperceive about the Inca architecture—about the Incas not accepting the wheel, metal accoutrement and so on? How abundant of a actuality is that? ~ McLan

Answer: The Incas were absolutely one of a ample cardinal of affiliated groups active in Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest. All of the Indians in the Inca authority were not, carefully speaking, Incas. We apperceive of no one today that can absolutely affirmation a absolute coast from the Incas themselves, although there may be such people. In any event, no one today knows annihilation about the affairs in the Inca authority above-mentioned to the Spanish acquisition added than what we acquire accounting bottomward from that time by the Spaniards. We do additionally apperceive absolutely absolutely from the Spaniards who accustomed at the Inca authority appealing abundant at the acme of its adeptness that they did not acquire wheels, iron, steel, or a accounting language. They did acquire some metal accoutrement fabricated of brownish and we acquire begin babble confined and casual chisels. Unfortunately the chisels are about somewhat softer than the rocks with which the Incas congenital their buildings, so we do not anticipate those chisels played a aloft allotment in Inca architecture techniques.

Question: How abundant acreage did the Inca commonwealth accoutrement aboveboard Kim’s? How abounding bags would the bigger architecture blocks be? ~John

Answer: I acquire no abstraction what the aboveboard kilometers covered by the Inca authority were at the time of the conquest, about I anticipate you can bulk this out yourself by apropos to an atlas. The Inca authority at its acme continued from southern Columbia all the way bottomward to axial Chile and from the Pacific Ocean to the toe of the eastern abruptness of the Andes at the arch of the Amazon basin.

As for the bigger blocks acclimated by the Incas, the bigger block I’m acquainted of is allegedly in the charcoal of Sacsahuaman abreast Cuzco and it is accounted to be about 300 tons.

Question: Has anyone been able to carbon the Incas’ adeptness to position stones calm with seams so bound that a razor brand cannot admission the seem? Do we apperceive how they managed to do this with their “primitive” technology? ~Miguel

Answer: Yes, several of us researching this catechism of how the Incas congenital and fit their stones so altogether calm acquire accomplished acceptable after-effects with methods that we proposed were acclimated by the Incas. A acceptable acquaintance of mine, J-P Protzen who appeared in our NOVA blur has done absolute acceptable joints in baby stones of the admeasurement that can calmly be handled by one or two bodies and we accomplished a adequately acceptable collective in a ample bean barometer several bags in weight. Nevertheless, there is a lot added to be done to prove that we apperceive absolutely how the Incas did this.

Question: I acquire credible on TV that hot air balloons could acquire been fabricated from bounded abstracts in the around of the Inca empire’s boundaries. Could a aggregation (10 – 15) of these balloons additional ground-based manpower acquire aerial the stones beyond the river and up to the sun temple? If the balloons let the stones hover in midair, that would additionally accredit attention carving. (name withheld)

Answer: I agnosticism absolute actively that hot air balloons were acclimated by the Incas above-mentioned to the Spanish acquisition or for that bulk afterwards. We acquire no affirmation from any antecedent of this. It is additionally authentic that the appropriation adeptness of a hot air airship is about slight, amounting alone to the aberration of the weight of the gas in the airship and the weight of any according aggregate of air. With this in mind, it would booty a airship the admeasurement of Mount Everest to aces up some of the stones that we see in abode today.

Question: THEORY ONE: I acquire that the Incas did not acquire the caster and avant-garde block and accouterment but alike age-old cultures acclimated article like a “gin pole” to accommodate advantage and act as a elevate to lift things.

THEORY TWO: It occurs to me that an aerial butt of these ample rocks would accommodate the base admission that the adjustment apparent on the affairs did not. It would additionally accommodate the ascendancy to list, elevate and acclimatize that the chiral adjustment did not.

THEORY THREE: The notches on the lower bend of the rocks I can anticipate as attack credibility but I anticipate a apparatus like an “ice tong” that has a centermost blueprint and arced or pointing up tips adeptness acquire provided the butt that the sticks from beneath did not. Would a angled annex with a continued leg and a abbreviate tip acclimated in pairs be the affectionate of tong to butt a bedrock from above? The weight of the article tightens the anchor until you lower the gin pole or elevate and abolish the pressure.

THEORY FOUR: The Incas acutely had braiding technology. I anticipate I acquire alike credible examples breadth adopting and blurred an article was allegedly acclimated so they charge acquire had awkward accessible aperture block technology. If you attending at the Phoenician, Egyptian, Greek, Malaysian boats and the RA and the Kon Tiki they all had some block technology to change burden on a line. Alike a three aperture block provides a amazing bulk of lift. Four or bristles hundred years ago there were sailing boats with this affectionate of technology. Absolutely a adeptness this avant-garde would acquire been able to butt the concept.

THEORY FIVE: I am not absolutely accessible to acquire the emblematic mirror approach as a architecture apparatus but they may absolutely acquire provided some advice amid way stations.

THEORY SIX: As we know, the wet bedrock accommodate a absolute able aisle to move the stone. The Inca had abounding waterways. The cobbles provided a address credible with decidedly beneath abrasion than the bald dirt. We apperceive that there appeared to be a roadbed beneath the bean that was moved. On top of the roadbed there was blooming material. Acquire you anytime absolved on wet grass on a credible that had little friction? You may bethink what the sky looked like while you were lying on your back. What is to say that they did not anoint the grass on the cobbles with water, mud, or admixture to move the gigantic stones?

THEORY SEVEN: Incidentally sliding these ample rocks on a cobbled credible would be like abrading copse on sandpaper. It would leave a smooth, abraded surface. ~Dave

Answer: There are a cardinal of things included in this catechism but they all about articulation aloft the abstraction that the Incas conceivably had some array of archaic braiding technology such as gin poles and ice tong lifters and so forth, all of which were frequently acclimated in medieval Europe. Again, the Inca authority was appealing abundant at its cultural acme at the time of the Spanish acquisition alike admitting there was amusing agitation and some of the aloft architecture projects had allegedly been canceled by that time. There is no affirmation from any Spaniards who acquire witnessed Inca technology of the use of any anatomy of caster or gin pole or ice tong countdown and accordingly we agnosticism actively that these things played abundant of a allotment in Inca architecture above-mentioned to the addition of those techniques by the Spaniards. It is additionally authentic that the rocks we are talking about are so ample that alike if the Incas had such technology it would acquire been awfully bare to the task. On our contempo activity on Easter Island (see Secrets of Easter Island) we bald a huge animate crane to aces up a bedrock belief alone 10 tons. I am not acquainted of any crane alike today that could aces up a 300-ton object. There may be one, but it absolutely couldn’t be fabricated from poles and ropes and the sorts of things that you adduce adeptness acquire been accessible to the Incas. You additionally beforehand as does one added questioner that lubricating a alley bed adeptness acquire played a allotment in affective Inca stones and I’m adequately abiding that’s true. Unfortunately today we acquire absolute little affirmation of this. Alike breadth we burrow the anchorage we acquisition annihilation added than rocks but it is about absolutely authentic that grass and liquids of assorted kinds and conceivably as you beforehand smooth, annular stones were acclimated absolute finer to anoint alley beds for affective abundant objects.

Question: On the appearance I saw tonight apropos the arresting architecture that were fabricated of bean adapted together. Aback affairs the abundant stones up the abrupt brand and again bottomward the steeper grade, why couldn’t they acquire acclimated the weight of the bean activity bottomward to advice cull up the bean on the added ancillary of the top? It adeptness additionally advice ascendancy the acceleration of the bean activity down. If they could get a baby bean to the top, they could use it as a balance for the abutting bean which could be heavier. If they acclimated progressively added stones, it wouldn’t booty a abundant man accomplishment to beforehand the bean up and it would absolutely advice the bean activity bottomward as it would be counterweighted by a added bean activity up. ~Peggy

Answer: You adduce that the stones affective bottomward a brand on one ancillary of a acropolis adeptness acquire been acclimated to counter-balance and alike advice lift stones up the acropolis on the added side. I agnosticism actively that this is the case because the stones are so ample and the frictional surfaces adjoin which they buck so abundant that there is absolute little force (even in the case of a bean affective bottomward hill) activated on the ropes blurred it. It is additionally authentic that at Ollantay Tambo the stones about move decline from the quarry and acclivous to the charcoal so that we didn’t absolutely acquire the befalling to administer the assumption that you are suggesting.

Question: I noticed in the affairs that the easiest way to alteration a bedrock was through the beck bed. Bean on “wet” stone. Acquire you advised that the Incas may acquire wetted the bean and slid the bedrock over the trail. Or alike yet, transferred the bean over wet harbinger on wet bean roads. You may acquisition that the accessory of abrasion is abundant beneath than dry bean on dry stone. ~Roger

Answer: This additionally deals with the catechism of appointment stones on a wet cobblestones or added anointed surfaces and we are adequately assertive that this wasn’t the case although we absolutely acquire little affirmation to prove it at this point in time.

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When you apply a template to a document, Word applies the template’s styles and structure to the additional document. all in the template is to hand in the supplementary document. This inheritance is fine but can have rushed outcome if you base a template on an existing document. There are two ways to create a template: You can door a supplementary document, amend it as needed, and after that save the file as a template file. You can keep an existing .docx document that contains every the styles and structural components you desire in the template as a template file. The latter read can give terrible surprises because you don’t always remember whatever that’s in the existing .docx file. In contrast, a template built from scratch contains lonely those elements you purposely added. For this reason, I suggest that you create a template from graze and copy styles from existing documents into the template.

The template contains a specific layout, style, design and, sometimes, fields and text that are common to every use of that template. Some templates are as a result unqualified (such as business cards), you deserted have to fiddle with the individuals name, phone number, and email address. Others, such as event reports or brochures, could require that anything is changed except the layout and design.

A template is a timesaver. Its a pretentiousness to make Word 2013 documents that use the similar styles and formatting without your having to re-create every that act out and effort. Basically, the template saves time. To use a template, you choose one as soon as you begin stirring a supplementary document. You pick a specific template instead of using the blank, further document option. behind the template opens, it contains all the styles and formatting you need. It may even contain text, headers, footers, or any extra common recommendation that may not change for same documents.

Make Beautifull Blank Pattern Block Templates

Like Google Docs, Microsoft Word is loaded once pre-made templates, from meeting agendas and cover letters to issue trip checklists. However, Word next lets you keep your own reusable templates as .dotx files (rather than the everlasting .docx documents). tell you’ve drawn stirring a event pact that you desire to save for complex use. Just click File > save as Template. next grow old you begin a new document, your template will appear in your gallery of options, next to Word’s pre-existing templates. in imitation of you desire to create a new tally of the contract, make a new file, locate the settlement template, and click Open. If you desire to cut your template, select the entre dialog and fiddle with the Files of Type unconventional to Templates. Then, search for the template in question, door it, and make your changes. From here upon out, every document you create based upon that template will incorporate those changes. Having a distinction amongst templates and documents is in fact useful, back it protects you from accidentally modifying, deleting, or losing your master copy.

Most of the thesame document template actions apply to presentations: make a base presentation subsequent to your general layout, apply your style to the slides, then duplicate the presentation and occupy in the blanks each era you need to gift something. Or, there’s out of the ordinary way. If you often reuse the exact same slides in exchange presentationsperhaps a slide gone your situation plan, company statement, goals, or some further common elementsyou can copy individual slides from one presentation into out of the ordinary without sacrificing your presentation’s design. Here’s a fast tutorial on swapping content in Google Slides, and don’t worry, this same trick works in Apple Keynote or Microsoft PowerPoint’s desktop versions, too.

Trello is expected to rupture your projects the length of into groups called boards, which means it’s the absolute tool for creating templatesbut you’ll craving to copy those boards to reuse them. To make a template project, just create a extra board, ensue the take over lists and cards, then flesh them out subsequent to the relevant attachments, project members, and descriptions (if applicable). For example, if your coworker always handles visuals for your blog posts, you could apportion the make graphics card to them in advance and accumulate template design filesnow, all grow old you use this template for a other project, they’ll already be assigned to that task. gone you desire to use this template, right of entry the sidebar menu, pick More subsequently pick Copy board. If you don’t desire to go to the worry of creating a brand-new board for your template, suitably copy an existing one. You can pick whether or not to carry more than the cardsa friendly way to reuse an pass project’s list structure without duplicating completed tasks. You could afterward make templates for specific project stages rather than the entire project. tell you offer a range of rotate digital promotion services. make a list for every help (like SEO Audit Template); after that taking into consideration you acquire a new client, you can copy the lists for the services they’ve asked for into a open Trello board. Trello even lets you copy individual cards, hence you can make a task template taking into consideration a checklist, attachments, and assignees. Then, to be credited with new tasks in imitation of that thesame set of checklists and attachments, just copy the card and fill in this task’s unique details. For project template ideas, check out Trello’s Inspiration collection. You’ll find templates for business, productivity, lifestyle, and education expected by people behind Buffer’s Kevan Lee and Brit & Co’s CEO Brit Morin.

nimble Collab is option project tool expected for templates. Just right of entry your projects listing, and choose Templates, subsequently click + further Template. The app lets you preset tons of details, suitably you can quickly jump into the genuine produce a result neighboring mature you begin a project. choose which team members you desire to build up to all version of this template, create tasks and task lists (with relative due dates, in view of that they’ll be based on the morning the project goes live), set discussion topics, upload images and files, and insert project notes.

Crafting a lovely email for your customers and links takes a lot of grow old and energy, as a result having go-to templates is a big productivity boost. Email list tool Mailchimp includes the tools needed to make pretty email templates that will be automatically customized for your readers. You can permission templates at any mature by clicking Templates in the upper navigation bar. To create a new one, select make Template. Mailchimp’s templates arrive in two flavors: Basic (blank layouts) and Themes (pre-designed and pre-formatted templates). If you’re creating an email rouse in the region of recommendation from a stand-in site, you can use an AutoConnect template (found under Themes.) in the manner of you connect an AutoConnect template to unconventional application (options enhance iTunes, Twitter, Facebook, SurveyMonkey, Eventbrite, eBay, and Etsy), Mailchimp will tug in the relevant info and images. For example, let’s say you’re promoting an Etsy product. Set stirring an AutoConnect template in the same way as Etsy, and Mailchimp will tug in your header image, profile info, and join to your shop. If you regularly herald blog posts, you’ll locate the RSS-to-email templates truly handy. choose a style, tell Mailchimp which RSS feed you’d taking into account to use, and regard as being upon a cadence (daily, weekly, or monthly). Now your subscribers will consistently acquire light content, and you don’t have to raise a finger. as soon as you’re ready to send out a campaign, click the Campaigns tab and pick create Campaign. in the same way as you’ve prearranged the details of your demonstrate and entered the Design stage, you’ll be competent to pick a template. Copy, delete, and upgrade your text and portray blocks to make a unique relation of your template, or depart it as is. Then, send it off. Mailchimp as well as lets you duplicate individual campaigns. Go support to your Campaigns tab, find the one you desire a copy of, click the dropdown arrow, and pick Replicate.

Fortunately for us, Microsoft provides many hundreds of templates for every of its programs. Note that most of Microsofts templates are online, which means you cannot right of entry them unless youre joined to the Internet. In Microsoft Word, you can create a template by saving a document as a .dotx file, .dot file, or a .dotm fie (a .dotm file type allows you to enable macros in the file).

The supplementary document contains the styles and formats and perhaps even some text thats ready for you to use or edit. At this point, you be active once the document just taking into account you bill taking into consideration any further document in Word, even though a lot of the formatting and typing has been done for you. Even even if the template has saved you some time, you still dependence to keep your work! Use the save command and allow your document a proper broadcast as soon as possible! Editing the document doesnt modify the template.

Blank Pattern Block Templates

If you are going to portion your templates subsequent to others, or suitably plan on using them to make a number of documents try to plot and structure them subsequent to care. Avoid making a template from any documents converted from a oscillate word running program or even a much earlier story of Word. Because there is no exaggeration to translate feature-for-feature a perplexing document structure from one program to another, these conversions are prone to document corruption. In Word, even documents created in the current savings account of Word can cause problems if they have automatically numbered paragraphs.

A user’s document templates are usually stored in a folder, usually on the user’s computer, and normally called “Templates.” The normal.dotm (or normal.dot) file will always be located in this folder. The default location of this lp differs along with the various versions of Word. Both the location and the read out can be changed by the user. If you question Word to keep a document as a template, in Word 97-2003 this is the sticker album you will be taken to for that purpose.

My recommendation for workgroup templates in a networked mood is to keep them upon a server and to have the user login copy/refresh them locally. That is, for individual users, they are stored upon a local drive. If you are looking for Blank Pattern Block Templates, you’ve arrive to the right place. We have some images nearly Blank Pattern Block Templates including images, pictures, photos, wallpapers, and more. In these page, we after that have variety of images available. Such as png, jpg, perky gifs, pic art, logo, black and white, transparent, etc.

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